Haloragaceae

Parrot's feather Myriophyllum aquaticum, copyright Harry Rose.

Belongs within: Hamamelidaceae.

The Haloragaceae are a group of often aquatic plants that are most diverse in the Southern Hemisphere (Hickman 1993).

Characters (from Hickman 1993): Annuals, perennials or shrubs, generally monoecious, generally aquatic. Leaves cauline, opposite, alternate, or whorled; submersed blades with pinnate, thread-like divisions; aerial leaves simple, entire to divided. Inflorescence a panicle, raceme, or spike; flowers 1 or clustered, short-pedicelled to more or less sessile. Flowers generally unisexual, small, biradial; calyx tube short, fused to ovary, lobes 2-4; petals generally 2-4; stamens 4 or 8, filaments generally short; ovary inferior, chambers 1-4, styles 2-4, separate, stigmas generally plumose. Fruit fleshy or nut-like, dehiscent or not. Seeds generally 1 per chamber.

Haloragaceae [Haloragales]
    |--Laurembergia YY22
    |--Haloragodendron glandulosum G04b
    |--Hippuridella stacheana Edwards 1932 CBH93
    |--Proserpinaca palustris CBH93, M83
    |--Glischrocaryon RL05
    |    |--G. aureum RL05
    |    |    |--G. a. var. aureum G04b
    |    |    `--G. a. var. angustifolium G04b
    |    `--G. flavescens G04a
    |--Gonocarpus LK14
    |    |--G. aggregatus W91
    |    |--G. chinensis LK14
    |    |--G. cordiger GK00
    |    |--G. hexandrus GK00
    |    |    |--G. h. ssp. hexandrus GK00
    |    |    `--G. h. ssp. integrifolius GK00
    |    |--G. implexus LK14
    |    |--G. leptothecus LK14
    |    |--G. nodulosus G04a
    |    |--G. paniculatus GK00
    |    `--G. pithyoides GK00
    |--Myriophyllum Linnaeus 1753 A61
    |    |--M. alterniflorum C55
    |    |--M. aquaticum [incl. M. brasiliense] H93
    |    |--M. callitrichoides LK14
    |    |    |--M. c. ssp. callitrichoides LK14
    |    |    `--M. c. ssp. striatum LK14
    |    |--M. costatum LK14
    |    |--M. crispatum LK14
    |    |--M. dicoccum LK14
    |    |--M. drummondii GK00
    |    |--M. elatinoides Gaud. 1825 A61
    |    |--M. exalbescens B97
    |    |--M. filiforme LK14
    |    |--M. heterophyllum H63
    |    |--M. hippuroides H93
    |    |--M. limnophilum GK00
    |    |--M. pedunculatum Hook. f. 1847 A61
    |    |--M. propinquum Cunn. 1839 (see below for synonymy) A61
    |    |--M. robustum Hook. f. 1864 A61
    |    |--M. sibiricum H93
    |    |--M. spicatum H06
    |    |--M. tenellum V72
    |    |--M. tillaeoides GK00
    |    |--M. trachycarpum LK14
    |    |--M. verrucosum LK14
    |    |--M. verticillatum D03
    |    `--M. votschii Schindler 1905 A61
    `--Haloragis Forster & Forster 1776 A61
         |  i. s.: H. aspera NDA05
         |         H. asperrima A61
         |         H. brownii GK00
         |         H. depressa (Cunn.) Walp. 1843 (see below for synonymy) A61
         |           |--H. d. var. depressa C06
         |           `--H. d. var. serpyllifolia [=Gonicarpus serpyllifolius; incl. G. vernicosus] C06
         |         H. exalata A61
         |         H. gossei KM08
         |         H. incana (Cunn.) Walp. 1843 (see below for synonymy) A61
         |         H. laevis A61
         |         H. masafuerana Skottsberg 1922 A61
         |         H. masatierrana Skottsberg 1922 A61
         |         H. micrantha (Thunb.) Br. ex Siebold & Zucc. 1843 (see below for synonymy) A61
         |         H. procumbens Cheesem. 1910 (see below for synonymy) A61
         |         H. salsoloides H87
         |         H. serra NDA05
         |         H. tetragyna A61 [=Goniocarpus tetragynus C06]
         |         H. trigonocarpa A61
         `--H. subsect. Cercodia A61
              |--H. cartilaginea Cheesem. 1897 [=H. alata var. cartilaginea Cheesem. 1906] A61
              |--H. colensoi Skottsberg 1922 A61
              `--H. erecta (Banks ex Murr.) Eichl. 1878 (see below for synonymy) A61

Haloragis depressa (Cunn.) Walp. 1843 [=Goniocarpus depressus Cunn. 1839; incl. H. aggregata Buchan. 1872, H. depressa var. aggregata (Buchan.) Kirk 1899, H. bibracteolata Col. 1890, H. uniflora var. bibracteolata (Col.) Schindler 1905, H. spicata Petrie 1887, H. depressa var. spicata (Petrie) Schindler 1905, H. uniflora Kirk 1877, H. depressa var. uniflora (Kirk) Cheesem. 1910] A61

Haloragis erecta (Banks ex Murr.) Eichl. 1878 [=Cercodia erecta Banks ex Murr. 1781; incl. H. alata Jacquin 1781, C. alternifolia Cunn. 1839, H. caprae Chiovenda & Vaccari 1933] A61

Haloragis incana (Cunn.) Walp. 1843 [=Cercodia incana Cunn. 1839, H. tetragyna var. incana Kirk 1899] A61

Haloragis micrantha (Thunb.) Br. ex Siebold & Zucc. 1843 [=Gonocarpus micranthus Thunb. 1783; incl. G. citriodorus Cunn. 18739, Haloragis minima Colenso 1886, H. tenella Brong. 1829 (preoc.)] A61

Haloragis procumbens Cheesem. 1910 [incl. H. tetragyna var. diffusa Hook. f. 1852, H. diffusa (Hook. f.) Ckn. 1909 non Diels 1904] A61

Myriophyllum propinquum Cunn. 1839 [=M. propinquum var. tenuifolium Schindler 1905; incl. M. propinquum var. genuinum Schindler 1905, M. intermedium Kirk 1899 (preoc.), M. variaefolium Hook. f. 1840] A61

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[A61] Allan, H. H. 1961. Flora of New Zealand vol. 1. Indigenous Tracheophyta: Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Filicopsida, Gymnospermae, Dicotyledones. R. E. Owen, Government Printer: Wellington (New Zealand).

[B97] Brown, K. M. 1997. Temporal and spatial patterns of abundance in the gastropod assemblage of a macrophyte bed. American Malacological Bulletin 14 (1): 27–33.

[C55] Candolle, A. de. 1855. Géographie Botanique Raisonée: Ou exposition des faits principaux et des lois concernant la distribution géographique des plantes de l’époque actuelle vol. 2. Librairie de Victor Masson: Paris.

[C06] Cheeseman, T. F. 1906. Manual of the New Zealand Flora. John Mackay, Government Printer: Wellington.

[CBH93] Collinson, M. E., M. C. Boulter & P. L. Holmes. 1993. Magnoliophyta (‘Angiospermae’). In: Benton, M. J. (ed.) The Fossil Record 2 pp. 809–841. Chapman & Hall: London.

[D03] Dusén, P. 1903. The vegetation of western Patagonia. In: Scott, W. B. (ed.) Reports of the Princeton University Expeditions to Patagonia, 1896–1899 vol. 8. Botany pp. 1–34. The University: Princeton (New Jersey).

[G04a] Gibson, N. 2004a. Flora and vegetation of the Eastern Goldfields Ranges: part 6. Mt Manning Range. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 87 (2): 35–47.

[G04b] Gibson, N. 2004b. Flora and vegetation of the Eastern Goldfields Ranges: part 7. Middle and South Ironcap, Digger Rock and Hatter Hill. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 87 (2): 49–62.

[GK00] Gibson, N., & G. J. Keighery. 2000. Flora and vegetation of the Byenup-Muir reserve system, south-west Western Australia. CALMScience 3 (3): 323–402.

[H87] Haviland, E. 1887. Flowering seasons of Australian plants. No. I—List of plants indigenous in the neighbourhood of Sydney, flowering during July. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, series 2, 1 (4): 1049–1051.

[H63] Heard, W. H. 1963. Reproductive features of Valvata. Nautilus 77 (2): 64–68.

[H06] Henderson, L. 2006. Comparisons of invasive plants in southern Africa originating from southern temperate, northern temperate and tropical regions. Bothalia 36 (2): 201–222.

[H93] Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press: Berkeley (California).

[KM08] Keighery, G. J., & W. Muir. 2008. Vegetation and vascular flora of Faure Island, Shark Bay, Western Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum Supplement 75: 11–19.

[LK14] Lyons, M. N., G. J. Keighery, L. A. Gibson & T. Handasyde. 2014. Flora and vegetation communities of selected islands off the Kimberley coast of Western Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum Supplement 81: 205–244.

[M83] Myers, R. L. 1983. Site susceptibility to invasion by the exotic tree Melaleuca quinquenervia in southern Florida. Journal of Applied Ecology 20: 645–658.

[NDA05] Nickrent, D. L., J. P. Der & F. E. Anderson. 2005. Discovery of the photosynthetic relatives of the "Maltese mushroom" Cynomorium. BMC Evolutionary Biology 5: 38.

[RL05] Rafferty, C., & B. B. Lamont. 2005. Selective feeding by macropods on vegetation regenerating following fire. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 88 (4): 155–165.

[V72] Voss, E. G. 1972. Michigan Flora. Part I. Gymnosperms and Monocots. Cranbrook Institute of Science and University of Michigan Herbarium.

[YY22] Yampolsky, C., & H. Yampolsky. 1922. Distribution of sex forms in the phanerogamic flora. Bibliotheca Genetica 3: 1–62.

Saxifragaceae

Iowa golden saxifrage Chrysosplenium iowense, copyright Tab Tannery.

Belongs within: Hamamelidaceae.
Contains: Heuchera, Saxifraga.

The Saxifragaceae are a diverse group of perennial herbs and subshrubs that are most diverse in temperate and boreal regions.

Characters (from Hickman 1993): Perennial or subshrub from caudex or rhizome, generally more or less hairy. Stem often more or less leafy on lower half, rarely trailing and leafy throughout. Leaves generally simple, basal or sometimes cauline, generally alternate, generally petioled; veins more or less palmate. Inflorescence a panicle, generally more or less scapose. Flowers generally bisexual, generally radial; hypanthium free to more or less fused to ovary; calyx lobes generally 5: petals generally 5, free, generally clawed, generally white; stamens generally 5 or 10; pistils 2 and simple or 1 and compound (chambers 1-2, placentas 2-4, axile or parietal), ovary superior to inferior, sometimes more superior in fruit, styles generally 2. Fruit 2 follicles or 2—4-valved capsule. Seeds generally many, small.

Saxifragaceae [Saxifragoideae]
    |--Saxifragella albowiana NDA05
    `--+--+--Astilbe [Astilboideae] NDA05
       |  |    `--A. taquetii NDA05
       |  `--+--+--Tanakaea radicans NDA05
       |     |  `--Leptarrhena pyrifolia NDA05
       |     `--+--+--Telesonix heucheriformis NDA05
       |        |  `--Jepsonia NDA05
       |        |       |--J. heterandra [=J. parryi var. heterandra] H93
       |        |       |--J. malvifolia H93
       |        |       `--J. parryi NDA05
       |        `--+--Sullivantia oregana NDA05
       |           `--+--Bolandra NDA05
       |              |    |--B. californica H93
       |              |    `--B. oregana NDA05
       |              `--Boykinia NDA05
       |                   |--B. intermedia NDA05
       |                   |--B. major H93
       |                   |--B. occidentalis [incl. B. elata] H93
       |                   `--B. rotundifolia NDA05
       `--+--+--+--Tolmiea menziesii NDA05
          |  |  `--Bensoniella oregona NDA05 [=Bensonia oregana H93]
          |  `--+--Elmera racemosa NDA05
          |     `--+--Tiarella NDA05
          |        |    |--T. polyphylla O88
          |        |    `--T. trifoliata H93
          |        |         |--T. t. var. trifoliata H93
          |        |         `--T. t. var. unifoliata H93
          |        `--+--Heuchera NDA05
          |           `--+--Tellima grandiflora NDA05
          |              `--Mitella NDA05
          |                   |--M. breweri H93
          |                   |--M. caulescens H93
          |                   |--M. diversifolia NDA05
          |                   |--M. nuda NDA05
          |                   |--M. ovalis H93
          |                   |--M. pentandra NDA05
          |                   `--M. trifida H93
          `--+--+--+--Astilboides tabularis NDA05
             |  |  |--Darmera peltata NDA05 [=Peltiphyllum peltatum H93]
             |  |  `--Rodgersia pinnata NDA05
             |  `--+--Mukdenia rosii NDA05
             |     `--Bergenia NDA05
             |          |--B. cordifolia JK80
             |          `--B. purpurascens O88
             `--+--Saxifraga NDA05
                `--+--Peltoboykinia tellimoides NDA05
                   `--Chrysosplenium Linnaeus 1753 NDA05, KC01
                        |--C. carnosum O88
                        |--C. forrestii O88
                        |--C. glechomifolium H93
                        |--C. iowense NDA05
                        |--C. nepalense O88
                        |--C. nudicaule O88
                        |    |--C. n. var. nudicaule O88
                        |    `--C. n. var. intermedium O88
                        |--C. tenellum O88
                        `--C. uniflorum O88

Saxifragaceae incertae sedis:
  Broussaissia YY22
  Jurraniodendron YY22
  Dedea YY22
  Suksdorfia ranunculifolia H93
  Lithophragma H93
    |--L. affine [incl. L. affine ssp. mixtum, L. tripartita] H93
    |--L. bolanderi [incl. L. scabrella] H93
    |--L. cymbalaria H93
    |--L. glabrum [incl. L. bulbiferum] H93
    |--L. heterophyllum H93
    |--L. maximum H93
    |--L. parviflorum H93
    |    |--L. p. var. parviflorum H93
    |    `--L. p. var. trifoliatum H93
    `--L. tenellum [incl. L. breviloba, L. rupicola] H93
  Saxifragopsis fragarioides [=Saxifraga fragarioides] H93
  Saxifragispermum spinosissimum Reid & Chandler 1933 CBH93
  Elmeria Ridl. 1905 KC01
  Adenanthemum P92
  Stephanostemon P92
  Micranthes BGS05
    |--M. engleri (Dalla Torre) Galasso, Banfi & Soldano in Banfi, Galasso & Soldano 2005 (see below for synonymy) BGS05
    |--‘Saxifraga’ gageana WO88
    |--‘Saxifraga’ pallida WO88
    `--M. stellaris (L.) Galasso, Banfi & Soldano in Banfi, Galasso & Soldano 2005 (see below for synonymy) BGS05
  Cascadia BGS05
  Oresitrophe BGS05

Micranthes engleri (Dalla Torre) Galasso, Banfi & Soldano in Banfi, Galasso & Soldano 2005 [=Saxifraga engleri Dalla Torre 1882, S. stellaris ssp. engleri; incl. S. stellaris ssp. alpigena, S. stellaris ssp. robusta] BGS05

Micranthes stellaris (L.) Galasso, Banfi & Soldano in Banfi, Galasso & Soldano 2005 [=Saxifraga stellaris L. 1753] BGS05

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[BGS05] Banfi, E., G. Galasso & A. Soldano. 2005. Notes on systematics and taxonomy for the Italian vascular flora. 1. Atti Soc. It. Sci. Nat. Museo Civ. Stor. Nat. Milano 146 (2): 219–244.

[CBH93] Collinson, M. E., M. C. Boulter & P. L. Holmes. 1993. Magnoliophyta (‘Angiospermae’). In: Benton, M. J. (ed.) The Fossil Record 2 pp. 809–841. Chapman & Hall: London.

[H93] Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press: Berkeley (California).

[JK80] John, J., & K.-P. Kolbe. 1980. The systematic position of the “Theales” from the viewpoint of serology. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 8: 241–248.

[KC01] Kirk, P. M., P. F. Cannon, J. C. David & J. A. Stalpers. 2001. Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi 9^th ed. CAB International: Wallingford (UK).

[NDA05] Nickrent, D. L., J. P. Der & F. E. Anderson. 2005. Discovery of the photosynthetic relatives of the "Maltese mushroom" Cynomorium. BMC Evolutionary Biology 5: 38.

[O88] Ohba, H. 1988. The alpine flora of the Nepal Himalayas: an introductory note. In: Ohba, H., & S. B. Malla (eds) The Himalayan Plants vol. 1. The University Museum, University of Tokyo, Bulletin 31: 19–46.

[P92] Poinar, G. O., Jr. 1992. Life in Amber. Stanford University Press: Stanford.

[YY22] Yampolsky, C., & H. Yampolsky. 1922. Distribution of sex forms in the phanerogamic flora. Bibliotheca Genetica 3: 1–62.

Vitaceae

California wild grape Vitis californica, from Wikimedia Commons.

Belongs within: Gunneridae.

The Vitaceae are a pantropical group of flowering plants including the grapes of the genus Vitis and related taxa. Most are woody vines with tendrils opposite the leaves except for the genus Leea, species of which are herbs or trees.

Characters (from Hickman 1993): Woody vines; tendrils opposite leaves; flowers sometimes unisexual. Leaves generally many, cauline, simple or compound, alternate, petioled, deciduous; stipules generally deciduous. Inflorescence a cyme or panicle, generally opposite leaf, peduncled. Flowers radial; sepals generally reduced, generally fused, lobes 5 or absent; petals generally 5, free, reflexed and falling individually (or adherent at tips, more or less erect, and falling as unit), reddish or yellowish; stamens generally 5, opposite petals; nectaries absent or between stamens as more or less free glands; ovary 1, superior, chambers generally 2(—4), style 1 or absent, stigma inconspicuous or head-like. Fruit a berry. Seeds 1-6, large.

<==Vitaceae [Ampelideae, Vitales, Vitineae]
    |  i. s.: ‘Tricolporopollenites’ marcodurensis Gruas-Cavagnetto 1978 CBH93
    |--Ampelopsis YY22
    |    |--A. hederacea C55
    |    `--A. heterophyla T72
    |--Clematicissus YY22
    |--Landukia YY22
    |--Pteresanthes YY22
    |--Quinaria YY22
    |--Cayratia LK14
    |    |--C. japonica DD73
    |    |--C. pedata DD73
    |    `--C. trifolia LK14
    |--Ievlevia dorofeevii Samylina 1976 CBH93
    |--Lagenula Lour. 1790 KC01
    |--Parthenocissus P93
    |    |--P. quinquefolia BT87
    |    |--P. tricuspidata BTA75
    |    `--P. vitacea H93
    |--Leea [Leeaceae, Leeoideae] WM09
    |    |--L. acuminata DD73
    |    |--L. asiatica BB07
    |    |--L. bracteata DD73
    |    |--L. edgeworthii P03
    |    |--L. guineensis WM09
    |    |--L. indica DD73
    |    |--L. robusta DD73
    |    `--L. umbraculifera DD73
    |--Ampelocissus LK14
    |    |--A. acetosa LK14
    |    |--A. barbata DD73
    |    |--A. latifolia P03
    |    `--A. tomentosa P03
    |--Cyphostemma CV06
    |    |--C. bainesii CV06
    |    |--C. currorii CV06
    |    |--C. juttae CV06
    |    `--C. omburense CV06
    |--Tetrastigma DL07
    |    |--T. bracteolatum DD73
    |    |--T. dichotomum A78
    |    |--T. diepenhostii K03
    |    |--T. dubium DW04
    |    |--T. hypoclaucum DW04
    |    |--T. lanceolarium A78
    |    |--T. leucostaphylum NDA05
    |    |--T. mutabile A78
    |    |--T. nitens M04
    |    |--T. obovatum NDA05
    |    |--T. papillosum A78
    |    |--T. pergamaceum [=Vitis pergamacea] A78
    |    |--T. rumicisperma DD73
    |    `--T. serrulatum D07
    |--Cissus LK14
    |    |--C. adenocaulis H91
    |    |--C. adnata LK14
    |    |--C. antarctica [=Vitis antarctica; incl. V. baudiniana, Cissus glandulosa] H97
    |    |--C. assamica DD73
    |    |--C. dissecta J87
    |    |--C. hypoglauca WO92
    |    |--C. palmata F11
    |    |--C. reniformis LK14
    |    |--C. repanda KJ05
    |    |--C. sisyoides BT87
    |    |--C. sterculiifolia WO95
    |    `--C. verticillata J87
    `--Vitis [Vitoideae] TE00
         |--V. aestivalis Michx. 1803 CD07
         |--V. californica H93
         |--V. forestdalensis Traverse 1955 CBH93
         |--V. girdiana H93
         |--V. labrusca TE00
         |--V. munsoniana WD91
         |--V. oblongata H97
         |--V. papillosa A78
         |--V. riparia TE00
         |--V. rupestris CGW91
         |--V. shifunensis A78
         |--V. sterculifolia H97
         |--V. trifolia K03
         |--V. vinifera WM09
         `--V. vitiginea KJ05

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[A78] Ananthakrishnan, T. N. 1978. Thrips galls and gall thrips. Zoological Survey of India, Technical Monograph 1: 1–69, 26 pls.

[BB07] Baishya, A. K., & P. J. Bora. 2007. Cross community ethno-medico botany of Dibru-Saikhowa Biosphere Reserve, Assam. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India 49: 121–154.

[BT87] Baker, E. W., & D. M. Tuttle. 1987. The false spider mites of Mexico (Tenuipalpidae: Acari). United States Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin 1706: 1–237.

[BTA75] Baker, E. W., D. M. Tuttle & M. J. Abbatiello. 1975. The false spider mites of northwestern and north central Mexico (Acarina: Tenuipalpidae). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 194: 1–23.

[C55] Candolle, A. de. 1855. Géographie Botanique Raisonée: Ou exposition des faits principaux et des lois concernant la distribution géographique des plantes de l’époque actuelle vol. 2. Librairie de Victor Masson: Paris.

[CGW91] Carver, M., G. F. Gross & T. E. Woodward. 1991. Hemiptera (bugs, leafhoppers, cicadas, aphids, scale insects etc.) In: CSIRO. The Insects of Australia: A textbook for students and research workers vol. 1 pp. 429–509. Melbourne University Press: Carlton (Victoria).

[CD07] Cantino, P. D., J. A. Doyle, S. W. Graham, W. S. Judd, R. G. Olmstead, D. E. Soltis, P. S. Soltis & M. J. Donoghue. 2007. Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta. Taxon 56 (3): E1–E44.

[CBH93] Collinson, M. E., M. C. Boulter & P. L. Holmes. 1993. Magnoliophyta (‘Angiospermae’). In: Benton, M. J. (ed.) The Fossil Record 2 pp. 809–841. Chapman & Hall: London.

[CV06] Craven, P., & P. Vorster. 2006. Patterns of plant diversity and endemism in Namibia. Bothalia 36 (2): 175–189.

[D07] Dash, S. S. 2007. Useful plants of Kabi Sacred Grove, Sikkim. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India 49: 79–88.

[DL07] Davis, C. C., M. Latvis, D. L. Nickrent, K. J. Wurdack & D. A. Baum. 2007. Floral gigantism in Rafflesiaceae. Science 315: 1812.

[DW04] Davis, C. C., & K. J. Wurdack. 2004. Host-to-parasite gene transfer in flowering plants: phylogenetic evidence from Malpighiales. Science 305 (5684): 676–678.

[DD73] Deb, D. B., & R. M. Dutta. 1973. Contribution to the flora of Tirap Frontier Division. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 69 (3): 547–573.

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[H97] Hamilton, A. G. 1897. On domatia in certain Australian and other plants. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 21 (4): 758–792, pl. 57.

[H93] Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press: Berkeley (California).

[H91] Hokkanen, H. M. T. 1991. Trap cropping in pest management. Annual Review of Entomology 36: 119–138.

[J87] Judd, W. S. 1987. Floristic study of Morne La Visite and Pic Macaya National Parks, Haiti. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum—Biological Sciences 32 (1): 1–136.

[KJ05] Katewa, S. S., A. Jain, B. L. Chaudhary & P. Galav. 2005. Some unreported medicinal uses of plants from the tribal area of Southern Rajasthan. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India 47: 121–130.

[KC01] Kirk, P. M., P. F. Cannon, J. C. David & J. A. Stalpers. 2001. Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi 9^th ed. CAB International: Wallingford (UK).

[K03] Kulip, J. 2003. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and other useful plants of Muruts in Sabah, Malaysia. Telopea 10 (1): 81–98.

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[M04] Mound, L. A. 2004. Australian long-tailed gall thrips (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripinae, Leeuweniini), with comments on related Old World taxa. Australian Journal of Entomology 43: 28–37.

[NDA05] Nickrent, D. L., J. P. Der & F. E. Anderson. 2005. Discovery of the photosynthetic relatives of the "Maltese mushroom" Cynomorium. BMC Evolutionary Biology 5: 38.

[P03] Paul, T. K. 2003. Botanical observations on the Purulia pumped storage hydropower project area, Bagmundi Hills, Purulia district, West Bengal. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India 45: 121–142.

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[YY22] Yampolsky, C., & H. Yampolsky. 1922. Distribution of sex forms in the phanerogamic flora. Bibliotheca Genetica 3: 1–62.

Last updated: 7 June 2022.

Carcharhiniformes

Gulf catshark Asymbolus vincenti, copyright Seaborn.

Belongs within: Selachimorpha.
Contains: Hemigaleidae, Sphyrnidae, Carcharhinidae, Triakidae, Scyliorhinus, Apristurus, Galeus, Halaelurus.

The Carcharhiniformes are a diverse group of sharks with dorsal fins lacking anterior spines, and the posterior gill slit(s) overlapping the base of the pectoral fins.

Characters (from Compagno 1984): Trunk cylindrical to slightly compressed or depressed but not raylike. Head conical to depressed and usually not anteriorly expanded, except for the prebranchial head in Sphyrnidae; 5 pairs of gill slits present on sides of head (partly dorsolateral in some Scyliorhinidae), with the last 1 to 3 over pectoral bases; spiracles present in many species, small to large and close behind eyes, or absent; nostrils usually without barbels and nasoral grooves and always without circumnarial grooves, barbels when present developed from anterior nasal flaps rather than from lateral surfaces of flaps, anterior nasal flaps varying from well separated from mouth to overlapping it posteriorly; eyes lateral or dorsolateral on head, with true nictitating lower eyelids; snout varying from very short to moderately long and almost bladelike, but not greatly elongated and not formed as a rostral saw with lateral teeth and barbels; mouth moderately large to very large, arched, and extending behind anterior ends of eyes; labial furrows varying from large and on both jaws to absent; teeth variably differentiated along jaws, but usually without enlarged molariform posterior teeth and with anterior teeth not separated by small intermediate teeth or a gap from the lateral teeth. Two dorsal fins (possibly only one in Pentanchus, family Scyliorhinidae), without spines, the first with origin varying from over the gill slits to behind the pelvic bases; pectoral fins moderate-sized to large but not raylike, without triangular anterior lobes; pelvic fins small to moderately large, with vent continuous with their inner margins; anal fin present; caudal fin with a long dorsal lobe but with ventral lobe varying from long (but considerably shorter than the dorsal lobe) to absent; vertebral axis raised into the dorsal caudal lobe. Intestinal valve of spiral or scroll type.

<==Carcharhiniformes [Scyliorhinoidei] C84
    |--+--Carcharhinidae MW07
    |  `--Triakidae MW07
    `--Scyliorhinidae [Atelomycteridae, Catulidae, Cephaloscylliinae, Galeinae, Halaeluridae, Pentanchidae, Scyllia] C84
         |--Scyliorhinus MW07
         |--Apristurus C84
         |--Galeus C84
         |--Halaelurus C84
         |--Macrourogaleus hassei Woodward 1889 CDZ93
         |--Cephalurus Bigelow & Schroeder 1941 C84
         |    `--*C. cephalus (Gilbert 1892) [=Catulus cephalus] C84
         |--Pentanchus Smith & Radcliffe 1912 C84
         |    `--*P. profundicolus Smith & Radcliffe 1912 C84
         |--Aulohalaelurus Fowler 1934 C84
         |    `--*A. labiosus (Waite 1905) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--Atelomycterus Garman 1913 [=Atelomycterius (l. c.); incl. Deltascyllium Leigh-Sharpe 1926] C84
         |    |--*A. marmoratus (Bennett 1830) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |    `--A. macleayi Whitley 1939 C84
         |--Holohalaelurus Fowler 1934 [=Holohaelurus (l. c.)] C84
         |    |--*H. regani (Gilchrist 1922) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |    `--H. punctatus (Gilchrist 1914) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--Protoscyliorhinus Herman 1977 B18
         |    |--*P. bettrechiensis B18
         |    `--P. lamaudi Biddle & Landemaine 1988 B18
         |--Poroderma Smith 1837 [incl. Conoporoderma Fowler 1934] C84
         |    |--*P. africanum (Gmelin 1789) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |    |--P. marleyi Fowler 1934 [=Conoporoderma marleyi, Scyliorhinus leopardus Fowler 1935] C84
         |    `--P. pantherinum (Smith in Müller & Henle 1838) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--Haploblepharus Garman 1913 C84
         |    |--*H. edwardsii (Voigt in Cuvier 1832) [=Scyllium edwardsii] C84
         |    |--H. fuscus Smith 1950 C84
         |    `--H. pictus (Müller & Henle 1838) [=Scyllium pictum] C84
         |--Schroederichthys Springer 1966 C84
         |    |--*S. maculatus Springer 1966 C84
         |    |--S. bivius (Smith in Müller & Henle 1838) [=Scyllium bivium, Halaelurus bivius] C84
         |    |--S. chilensis (Guichenot in Gay 1848) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |    `--S. tenuis Springer 1966 C84
         |--Parmaturus Garman 1906 [incl. Dichichthys Chan 1966] C84
         |    |--*P. pilosus Garman 1906 [incl. Pristiurus hertwigi Engelhardt 1912] C84
         |    |--P. campechiensis Springer 1979 [=P. (Dichichthys) campechiensis] C84
         |    |--P. melanobranchius (Chan 1966) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |    `--P. xaniurus (Gilbert 1892) [=Catulus xaniurus] C84
         |--Cephaloscyllium Gill 1862 C84
         |    |--*C. laticeps (Dumeril 1853) [=Scyllium laticeps] C84
         |    |--C. fasciatum Chan 1966 C84
         |    |--C. isabellum (Bonnaterre 1788) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |    |--C. nascione Whitley 1932 [=C. isabella laticeps f. nascione] C84
         |    |--C. silasi (Talwar 1974) [=Scyliorhinus (Halaelurus) silasi] C84
         |    |--C. sufflans (Regan 1921) [=Scyliorhinus (Cephaloscyllium) sufflans] C84
         |    `--C. ventriosum (Garman 1880) (see below for synonymy) C84
         `--Asymbolus Whitley 1939 [incl. Juncrus Whitley 1939] C84
              |--*A. analis (Ogilby 1885) [=Scyllium anale, Halaelurus analis] C84
              |--A. funebris Compagno, Stevens & Last 1999 CSL99
              |--A. occiduus Last, Gomon & Gledhill 1999 LGG99
              |--A. pallidus Last, Gomon & Gledhill 1999 LGG99
              |--A. parvus Compagno, Stevens & Last 1999 CSL99
              |--A. rubiginosus Last, Gomon & Gledhill 1999 LGG99
              |--A. submaculatus Compagno, Stevens & Last 1999 CSL99
              `--A. vincenti (Zeitz 1908) [=Scyllium vincenti, Halaelurus vincenti, *Juncrus vincenti] C84

Carcharhiniformes incertae sedis:
  Proscyllidae [Proscylliinae] C84
    |--Proscyllium Hilgendorf 1904 [incl. Calliscyllium Tanaka 1912] C84
    |    `--*P. habereri Hilgendorf 1904 (see below for synonymy) C84
    |--Gollum Compagno 1973 C84
    |    `--*G. attenuatus (Garrick 1954) [=Triakis attenuata] C84
    |--Ctenacis Compagno 1973 C84
    |    `--*C. fehlmanni (Springer 1968) [=Triakis fehlmanni] C84
    `--Eridacnis Smith 1913 [incl. Neotriakis Smith 1957] C84
         |--*E. radcliffei Smith 1913 [incl. Proscyllium alcocki Misra 1950] C84
         |--E. barbouri (Bigelow & Schroeder 1944) [=Triakis barbouri] C84
         `--E. sinuans (Smith 1957) [=Neotriakis sinuans] C84
  Pseudotriakis Capello 1868 [=Pseudotriacis Günther 1870; Pseudotriacinae, Pseudotriakidae] C84
    `--*P. microdon Capello 1868 [incl. P. acrages Garman 1913, P. acrales Jordan & Snyder 1904] C84
  Leptocharias Smith in Müller & Henle 1838 (see below for synonymy) C84
    `--*L. smithii (Müller & Henle 1839) [=Triaenodon smithii; incl. Mustelus osborni Fowler 1923] C84
  Hemigaleidae C84
  Sphyrnidae C84

*Atelomycterus marmoratus (Bennett 1830) [=Scyllium marmoratum; incl. S. maculatum Gray 1832, S. pardus Temminck in Müller & Henle 1838 (n. n.)] C84

*Aulohalaelurus labiosus (Waite 1905) [=Catulus labiosus, Halaelurus (*Aulohalaelurus) labiosus; incl. Squalus maculatus Bloch & Schneider 1801 non Bonnaterre 1788] C84

Cephaloscyllium isabellum (Bonnaterre 1788) [=Squalus isabella; incl. C. formosanum Teng 1962, Scyllium lima Richardson 1842, Sc. sabella Gmelin 1789, Cephaloscyllium umbratile Jordan & Fowler 1903] C84

Cephaloscyllium ventriosum (Garman 1880) [=Scyllium ventriosum; incl. Catulus uter Jordan & Gilbert in Jordan & Evermann 1896] C84

Holohalaelurus punctatus (Gilchrist 1914) [=Scylliorhinus punctatus; incl. Scyliorhinus (Halaelurus) polystigma Regan 1921] C84

*Holohalaelurus regani (Gilchrist 1922) [=Scylliorhinus regani, Halaelurus (*Holohalaelurus) regani; incl. Scyliorhinus (Halaelurus) melanostigma Norman 1939] C84

Leptocharias Smith in Müller & Henle 1838 [=Leptocarcharias Günther 1870, Leptocarias (l. c.); Leptochariana, Leptochariidae] C84

Parmaturus melanobranchius (Chan 1966) [=*Dichichthys melanobranchius, Figaro melanobranchius; incl. F. piceus Chu, Meng & Liu 1983] C84

*Poroderma africanum (Gmelin 1789) [=Squalus africanus, Scyllium africanum, Scyliorhinus africanus; incl. Squalus striatus Lichtenstein 1844, Sq. vittatus Shaw & Nodder 1798] C84

Poroderma pantherinum (Smith in Müller & Henle 1838) [=Scyllium pantherinum, Conoporoderma pantherinum; incl. S. leopardinum Müller & Henle 1838 (n. n.), S. malandrinum Rapp in Müller & Henle 1838, Poroderma submaculatum Smith 1837 (n. n.), P. variegatum Smith 1837 (n. n.), Scyllium variegatum Smith in Müller & Henle 1838] C84

*Proscyllium habereri Hilgendorf 1904 [=Scyllium (*Proscyllium) habereri; incl. *Calliscyllium venustum Tanaka 1913, Triakis venusta] C84

Schroederichthys chilensis (Guichenot in Gay 1848) [=Scyllium chilense, Halaelurus chilensis; incl. Scyllium brevicolle Philippi 1887] C84

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[B18] Bernárdez, E. 2018. Truyolsodontos estauni n. gen., n. sp., Truyolsodontidae, a new family of lamniform sharks from the Cenomanian of northern Spain. Annales de Paléontologie 104: 175–181.

[CDZ93] Cappetta, H., C. Duffin & J. Zidek. 1993. Chondrichthyes. In: Benton, M. J. (ed.) The Fossil Record 2 pp. 593–609. Chapman & Hall: London.

[C84] Compagno, L. J. V. 1984. FAO Species Catalogue vol. 4. Sharks of the World: An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 2—Carcharhiniformes. United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome.

[CSL99] Compagno, L. J. V., J. D. Stevens & P. R. Last. 1999. Australian spotted catsharks of the genus Asymbolus (Carcharhiniformes: Scyliorhinidae). Part 1: descriptions of three new species from Western Australia. CSIRO Marine Laboratories Report 239: 2–18.

[LGG99] Last, P. R., M. F. Gomon & D. C. Gledhill. 1999. Australian spotted catsharks of the genus Asymbolus (Carcharhiniformes: Scyliorhinidae). Part 2: descriptions of three new, dark-spotted species. CSIRO Marine Laboratories Report 239: 19–35.

[MW07] Mallatt, J., & C. J. Winchell. 2007. Ribosomal RNA genes and deuterostome phylogeny revisited: more cyclostomes, elasmobranchs, reptiles, and a brittle star. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 43: 1005–1022.

Squalidae

Spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias, photographed by Doug Costa.

Belongs within: Selachimorpha.

The Squalidae, spiny dogfishes, are a group of sharks characterised by the lack of anal fin, with the two dorsal fins often preceded by a fixed spine.

<==Squalidae [Dalatiidae]
    |--Dalatiinae CDZ93
    |    |--Dalatias licha (Bonnaterre 1788) G60b (see below for synonymy)
    |    `--Isistius CDZ93
    |         |--I. brasiliensis (Quoy & Gaimard 1824) G60b
    |         |--I. plutodus B96
    |         `--I. trituratus (Winkler 1874) CDZ93
    |--Oxynotinae [Oxynotidae] CDZ93
    |    |--Protoxynotus misburgensis Herman 1975 CDZ93
    |    `--Oxynotus G60b
    |         |--O. bruniensis (Ogilby 1893) G60b
    |         |--O. centrina (Linnaeus 1758) G60a
    |         `--O. paradoxus Frade 1929 G60a
    |--Somniosinae CDZ93
    |    |--Cretascymnus adonis (Signeux 1950) CDZ93
    |    `--Somniosus G60b
    |         |--S. antarcticus Whitley 1939 G60b
    |         |--S. microcephalus (Bloch & Schneider 1801) B02
    |         |--S. pacificus B02
    |         `--S. rostratus B02
    |--Etmopterinae CDZ93
    |    |--Eoetmopterus Müller & Schollmann 1989 CDZ93
    |    |    |--‘Etmopterus’ hemmoorensis Herman 1982 CDZ93
    |    |    `--E. supracretaceus Müller & Schöllmann 1989 CDZ93
    |    `--Etmopterus G60b
    |         |--E. baxteri Garrick 1957 G60b
    |         |--E. brachyurus Smith & Radcliffe 1912 G60b
    |         |--E. gracilospinous B96
    |         |--E. lucifer Jordan & Snyder 1902 G60b (see below for synonymy)
    |         |--E. perryi B02
    |         |--E. princeps Collett 1904 G60a
    |         |--E. spinax PP64
    |         `--E. virens W92
    `--Squalinae CDZ93
         |--Protosqualus albertsii Thies 1981 CDZ93
         |--Squalogaleus Maisey 1976 CDZ93
         |    `--S. woodwardi Maisey 1976 CDZ93
         `--Squalus Linnaeus 1758 L58 [incl. Flakeus Whitley 1939 G60b, Koinga Whitley 1939 G60b]
              |--S. acanthias Linnaeus 1758 [incl. S. kirki Phillipps 1931, S. whitleyi Phillipps 1931] G60b
              |    |--S. a. acanthias G60b
              |    `--S. a. suckleyi G60b
              |--S. alsaticus F91
              |--S. blainvillei (Risso 1826) G61 (see below for synonymy)
              |--S. brevirostris Tanaka 1917 G60b
              |--S. centrina Linnaeus 1758 L58
              |--S. cubensis Rivero 1936 G60b
              |--S. fernandinus Molina 1782 G60b
              |--S. lebruni G60b
              |--S. megalops (Macleay 1882) G60b
              |--S. pristis Linnaeus 1758 L58
              |--S. spinax Linnaeus 1758 L58
              `--S. squatina Linnaeus 1758 L58

Squalidae incertae sedis:
  Euprotomicrus bispinatus (Quoy & Gaimard 1824) G60b
  Centroscyllium fabricii (Reinhardt 1825) G60b, B02
  Scymnodalatias G60b
    |--S. albicauda VF21
    `--S. sherwoodi (Archey 1921) [=Scymnodon sherwoodi] G60b
  Heteroscymnoides marleyi Fowler 1934 G60b
  Cirrhigaleus Tanaka 1912 G60b
    `--C. barbifer Tanaka 1912 G60b
  Squaliolus G60b
    |--S. laticaudus Smith & Radcliffe 1912 G60b
    `--S. sarmenti Noronha 1926 G60b
  Centroscymnus G60b
    |--C. coelolepis Bocage & Capello 1864 B02
    |--C. crepidater (Bocage & Capello 1864) G60b
    `--C. owstonii Garman 1906 G60b
  Scymnodon G60b
    |--S. ichiharai C84
    |--S. plunketi (Waite 1910) G60b (see below for synonymy)
    |--S. rossi NM72
    `--S. squamulosus [incl. S. obscurus] C84
  Deania G60b
    |--D. calcea (Lowe 1839) G60b (see below for synonymy)
    |--D. elegans Springer 1959 G60a
    |--D. natalense (Gilchrist 19220 G60a
    |--D. profundorum (Smith & Radcliffe 1912) G60a
    `--D. quadrispinosa (McCulloch 1915) G60b
  Centrophorus Müller & Henle 1833 [incl. Atractophorus Gilchrist 1922] NM72
    |--C. acus Garman 1906 G59
    |--C. armatus (Gilchrist 1922) [=*Atractophorus armatus] NM72
    |--C. granulosus BY99
    |--C. harrissoni McCulloch 1915 G60b
    |--C. scalptratus McCulloch 1915 G60b
    |--C. squamosus (Bonnaterre 1788) G60b (see below for synonymy)
    `--C. uyato G59
  Centropterus lividus Costa 1861 CDZ93

Centrophorus squamosus (Bonnaterre 1788) G60b [incl. C. foliaceus Gunther 1877 G59, Scymnodon foliaceus G59, C. nilsoni Thompson 1930 G59]

Dalatias licha (Bonnaterre 1788) G60b [=Scymnus lichia G60a; incl. Scymnorhinus phillippsi Whitley 1931 G60a, Dalatias phillippsi G60a]

Deania calcea (Lowe 1839) G60b [=Acanthidium calceum G60a, Centrophorus calceus G60a; incl. A. aciculatum Garman 1906 G60a, Deania aciculata G60a, D. eglantina Jordan & Snyder 1902 G60a, Acanthidium hystricosum Garman 1906 G60a, D. hystricosa G60a, Centrophorus kaikourae Whitley 1934 G60a, D. kaikourae G60a, Acanthidium rostratum Garman 1906 G60a, D. rostrata G60a]

Etmopterus lucifer Jordan & Snyder 1902 G60b [incl. E. abernethyi Garrick 1957 G60a, Acanthidium molleri Whitley 1939 G60a, E. molleri G60a]

Scymnodon plunketi (Waite 1910) G60b [=Centrophorus plunketi G59; incl. Centrophorus waitei Thompson 1930 G60b, G59, Centroscymnus waitei G59]

Squalus blainvillei (Risso 1826) G61 [=S. blainville G61, S. blainvillii (l. c.) G61; incl. S. griffini Phillipps 1931 G60b, S. tasmaniensis Rivero 1936 G60b]

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[B96] Bond, C. E. 1996. Biology of Fishes 2^nd ed. Saunders College Publishing: Fort Worth.

[B02] Burgess, G. H. 2002. Spiny dogfishes. Family Squalidae. In: Collette, B. B., & G. Klein-MacPhee (eds) Bigelow and Schroeder’s Fishes of the Gulf of Maine 3^rd ed. pp. 48–57. Smithsonian Institute Press: Washington.

[BY99] Burrow, C. J., & G. C. Young. 1999. An articulated teleostome fish from the Late Silurian (Ludlow) of Victoria, Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum Supplement 57: 1–14.

[CDZ93] Cappetta, H., C. Duffin & J. Zidek. 1993. Chondrichthyes. In: Benton, M. J. (ed.) The Fossil Record 2 pp. 593–609. Chapman & Hall: London.

[C84] Compagno, L. J. V. 1984. FAO Species Catalogue vol. 4. Sharks of the World: An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 2—Carcharhiniformes. United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome.

[F91] Freess, W. B. 1991. Beiträge zur Kenntnis von Fauna und Flora des marinen Mitteloligozäns bei Leipzig. Altenburger Naturwissenschaftliche Forschungen 6: 3–74.

[G59] Garrick, J. A. F. 1959. Studies on New Zealand Elasmobranchii. Part VII.—The identity of specimens of Centrophorus from New Zealand. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 86 (1): 127–141.

[G60a] Garrick, J. A. F. 1960a. Studies on New Zealand Elasmobranchii. Part XI.—Squaloids of the genera Deania, Etmopterus, Oxynotus and Dalatias in New Zealand waters. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 88 (3): 489–517.

[G60b] Garrick, J. A. F. 1960b. Studies on New Zealand Elasmobranchii. Part XII. The species of Squalus from New Zealand and Australia; and a general account and key to the New Zealand Squaloidea. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 88 (3): 519–557.

[G61] Garrick, J. A. F. 1961. A note on the spelling of the specific name of the immaculate spiny dogfish, Squalus blainvillei (Risso 1826). Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 88 (4): 843.

[L58] Linnaeus, C. 1758. Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Laurentii Salvii: Holmiae.

[NM72] Nair, R. V., & S. L. Mohan. 1972. The deep sea spined dog fish Centrophorus armatus (Gilchrist) (Selachii: Sualidae) from the east coast of India, with a note on its taxonomy. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 69 (1): 193–199.

[PP64] Peres, J. M., & J. Picard. 1964. Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique de la mer Mediterranee. Recueil des Travaux de la Station Marine d'Endoume, Bulletin 31 (27): 5–137.

[VF21] Vullo, R., E. Frey, C. Ifrim, M. A. González González, E. S. Stinnesbeck & W. Stinnesbeck. 2021. Manta-like planktivorous sharks in Late Cretaceous oceans. Science 371: 1253–1256.

[W92] Wilson, E. O. 1992. The Diversity of Life. Harvard University Press: Belknap (USA).

Carcharhinidae

Graceful shark Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides, copyright Tassapon Krajangdara.

Belongs within: Carcharhiniformes.

The Carcharhinidae, requiem sharks, are a group of actively swimming sharks including many of the most commonly encountered species in tropical waters.

Characters (from Compagno 1984): Head without laterally expanded blades; eyes circular, vertically oval, or horizontally oval, their lengths 1.5 times their height or less; nictitating eyelids internal; spiracles usually absent; anterior nasal flaps varying from lobular and tube-shaped to vestigial, not barbel-like; internarial width usually about 3 to 6 times nostril width; labial furrows varying from moderately long and conspicuous, to short and hidden when mouth is closed; teeth small to large, with acute and narrow to moderately broad cusps, sometimes lateral cusplets, but with basal ledges and grooves low or absent; teeth variably differentiated in upper and lower jaws, uppers often more compressed and bladelike, lowers often more cuspidate and not compressed; posterior teeth not comblike; tooth rows 18 to 60/18 to 56. Precaudal pits present. First dorsal fin moderate-sized to very large but not keel-like, much shorter than caudal fin; first dorsal base ahead of pelvic bases, varying from closer to pectoral bases to closer to pelvics; midpoint of first dorsal base always in front of pelvic origins; second dorsal fin usually much smaller than first; pectoral fins with radials extending into distal web of fins; ventral caudal lobe strong, undulations or ripples present in dorsal caudal margin. Neurocranium without supraorbital crests. Vertebral centra with strong, wedge-shaped intermedial calcifications. Valvular intestine with a scroll valve. Colour variable, usually no colour pattern. Development usually viviparous.

<==Carcharhinidae (see below for synonymy)
    |  i. s.: ‘Scyliorhinus’ africanus Arambourg 1952 non Squalus africanus Gmelin 1789 (not preoc. if in dif. gen.) CDZ93
    |--Abdounia beaugei (Arambourg 1952) CDZ93
    |--Eogaleus bolcensis Cappetta 1975 CDZ93
    |--Prionace Cantor 1849 (see below for synonymy) C84
    |    `--*P. glauca (Linnaeus 1758) (nom. cons.) (see below for synonymy) C84
    |--Triaenodon Müller & Henle 1837 C84
    |    `--*T. obesus (Rüppell 1837) [=Carcharias obesus; incl. T. apicalis Whitley 1939] C84
    |--Nasolamia Compagno & Garrick 1983 C84
    |    `--*N. velox (Gilbert in Jordan & Evermann 1898) [=Carcharhinus velox] C84
    |--Lamiopsis Gill 1862 C84
    |    `--*L. temmincki (Müller & Henle 1839) (see below for synonymy) C84
    |--Isogomphodon Gill 1862 C84
    |    `--*I. oxyrhynchus (Müller & Henle 1839) C84 (see below for synonymy)
    |--Loxodon Müller & Henle 1838 C84
    |    `--*L. macrorhinus Müller & Henle 1839 (see below for synonymy) C84
    |--Scoliodon Müller & Henle 1837 [incl. Physodon Valenciennes in Bonaparte 1838] C84
    |    |--*S. laticaudus Müller & Henle 1838 (see below for synonymy) C84
    |    `--S. acutus JR10
    |--Negaprion Whitley 1940 [incl. Hemigaleops Schultz in Schultz et al. 1953, Mystidens Whitley 1944] C84
    |    |--N. acutidens (Rüppell 1837) (see below for synonymy) C84
    |    `--N. brevirostris (Poey 1868) (see below for synonymy) C84
    |--Physogaleus CDZ93
    |    |--P. latus [=Eugaleus latus, Galeus latus] F91
    |    |--P. secundus (Winkler 1874) CDZ93
    |    `--P. tertius (Winkler 1874) [incl. Physodon contortus (Weiler 1922)] F91
    |--Glyphis Agassiz 1843 non Ach. 1814 (ICBN) G62
    |    |--*G. glyphis (Müller & Henle 1839) [=Carcharias (Prionodon) glyphis, Carcharhinus glyphis] C84
    |    |--G. gangeticus (Müller & Henle 1839) (see below for synonymy) C84
    |    `--G. hastalis Agassiz 1843 C84
    |--Galeocerdo Müller & Henle 1837 [incl. Boreogaleus Gill 1862] C84
    |    |--G. cuvier (Peron & LeSueur 1822) (see below for synonymy) C84
    |    |--G. acutus Storms 1894 [incl. G. medius Wittich 1898] F91
    |    |--G. aduncus C77
    |    |--G. latidens (Agassiz 1843) CDZ93
    |    `--G. pristodontus C77
    |--Rhizoprionodon Whitley 1929 [=Rhizoprion Ogilby 1915 non Jourdan 1861; incl. Protozygaena Whitley 1940] C84
    |    |--R. acutus (Rüppell 1837) C84 (see below for synonymy)
    |    |--R. lalandii (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) (see below for synonymy) C84
    |    |--R. longurio (Jordan & Gilbert 1882) [=Carcharias (Scoliodon) longurio] C84
    |    |--R. oligolinx Springer 1964 C84
    |    |--R. porosus (Poey 1861) [=Squalus porosus] C84
    |    |--R. taylori (Ogilby 1915) [=Physodon taylori, Protozygaena taylori] C84
    |    `--R. terraenovae (Richardson 1836) [=Squalus (Carcharias) terraenovae, Scoliodon terraenovae] C84
    `--Carcharhinus Blainville 1816 (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--*C. melanopterus (Quoy & Gaimard 1824) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--C. acronotus (Poey 1860) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--C. albimarginatus (Rüppell 1837) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--C. altimus (Springer 1950) [=Eulamia altima; incl. C. radamae Fourmanoir 1961] C84
         |--C. amblyrhynchoides (Whitley 1934) [=Gillisqualus amblyrhynchoides] C84
         |--C. amblyrhynchos (Bleeker 1856) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--C. amboinensis (Müller & Henle 1839) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--C. borneensis (Bleeker 1859) [=Carcharias (Prionodon) borneensis] C84
         |--C. brachyurus (Günther 1870) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--C. brevipinna (Müller & Henle 1839) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--C. cautus (Whitley 1945) [=Galeolamna greyi cauta] C84
         |--C. dussumieri (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--C. elongatus F91
         |--C. falciformis (Bibron in Müller & Henle 1839) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--‘Carcharias’ fissidens Bennett 1830–1831 (n. d.) C84
         |--C. fitzroyensis (Whitley 1943) [=Galeolamna (Uranganops) fitzroyensis] C84
         |--C. galapagensis (Snodgrass & Heller 1905) [=Carcharias galapagensis] C84
         |--C. hemiodon (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--‘Hypoprion’ heterodus Philippi 1887 (n. d.) [=Hemigaleus heterodus] C84
         |--C. isodon (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--‘Carcharias’ javanicus van Hasselt 1823 (n. d.) C84
         |--C. leucas (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--C. limbatus (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--C. longimanus (Poey 1861) (nom. cons.) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--C. macloti (Müller & Henle 1839) [=Carcharias (Hypoprion) macloti] C84
         |--‘Carcharias’ macrota W96
         |--‘Carcharias (Prionodon)’ munsing Bleeker 1849 (n. d.) C84
         |--C. obscurus (LeSueur 1818) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--C. perezi (Poey 1876) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--‘Eulamia’ philippi Fowler 1930 (n. d.) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--‘Thalassorhinus’ platyrhynchus Müller & Henle 1839 (n. d.) C84
         |--C. plumbeus (Nardo 1827) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--C. porosus (Ranzani 1839) (see below for synonymy) C84
         |--‘Carcharias’ robustus Philippi 1896 (n. d.) C84
         |--‘Carcharias’ sanctaethomae Engelhardt 1912 (n. d.) C84
         |--C. sealei (Pietschmann 1916) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         |--‘Carcharias (Prionodon)’ siamensis Steindachner 1896 (n. d.) C84
         |--C. signatus (Poey 1868) [=Hypoprion signatus; incl. H. bigelowi Cadenat 1956, H. longirostris Poey 1876] C84
         |--C. sorrah (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) C84 (see below for synonymy)
         `--C. wheeleri Garrick 1982 C84

Inorganic: Gleocerdo cuvieri minilorientalis Okamura 1987 O87

Nomina nuda: Squalus (Carcharhinus) broussonetii Blainville 1816 C84
             Squalus (Carcharhinus) heterobranchialis Blainville 1816 C84
             Squalus (Carcharhinus) heterodon Blainville 1816 C84
             Squalus (Carcharhinus) lividus Blainville 1816 C84
             Squalus (Carcharhinus) megalops Blainville 1816 non S. megalops (Macleay 1882) C84
             Squalus (Carcharhinus) ustus Blainville 1816 C84

Carcharhinidae [Carcharhininae, Carchariae, Carcharinidae, Eulamiidae, Galeocerdinae, Loxodontinae, Nictitantes, Scoliodontidae, Triaenodontes, Triaenodontini]

Carcharhinus Blainville 1816 [=Carcharorhinus Agassiz 1843 (nom. rej.); incl. Aprion Müller & Henle 1839 non Cuvier & Valenciennes 1830, Aprionodon Gill 1862, Bogimba Whitley 1943, Carcharias Cuvier 18917 (nom. rej.), Carcharinus Cloquet 1817 (nom. rej.), Eulamia Gill 1862, Galeolamna Owen 1853, Galeolamnoides Whitley 1934, Gillisqualus Whitley 1934, Gymnorhinus Hilgendorf in Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899 non Maximillian 1841, Gymnorrhinus Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899, Hypoprion Müller & Henle 1839, Hypoprionodon Gill 1862, Isoplagiodon Gill 1862, Lamnarius Whitley 1943, Longmania Whitley 1939, Mapolamia Whitley 1934, Ogilamia Whitley 1939, Platypodon Gill 1862, Prionodon Müller & Henle 1839 non Horsfield 1822, Pterolamia Springer 1950 (nom. rej.) non Breuning 1942, Pterolamiops Springer 1951, Uranga Whitley 1943, Uranganops Whitley 1943] C84

Carcharhinus acronotus (Poey 1860) [=Squalus acronotus; incl. Prionodon curcuri Castelnau 1855, Carcharias (Prionodon) remotus Dumeril 1865, Carcharhinus remotus] C84

Carcharhinus albimarginatus (Rüppell 1837) [=Carcharias albimarginatus; incl. Eulamia (Platypodon) platyrhynchus Gilbert 1892 non Thalassorhinus platyrhynchus Müller & Henle 1839, Carcharhinus platyrhynchus] C84

Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos (Bleeker 1856) C84 [=Carcharis (Prionodon) amblyrhynchos C84, Carcharhinus amblyrhynchus C84; incl. Galeolama coongoola Whitley 1964 C84, G. fowleri Whitley 1944 C84, Carcharias nesiodes Snyder 1904 C84, G. tufiensis Whitley 1949 C84, Carcharhinus tufiensis M58]

Carcharhinus amboinensis (Müller & Henle 1839) [=Carcharias (Prionodon) amboinensis; incl. Carcharias (P.) brachyrhynchos Bleeker 1859, Carcharias (P.) henlei Bleeker 1844 non Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839, Triaenodon obtusus Day 1878] C84

Carcharhinus brachyurus (Günther 1870) C84 [=Carcharias brachyurus C84; incl. Carcharhinus acarenatus Morenos & Hoyos 1983 C84, Eulamia ahenea Stead 1938 C84, Carcharhinus ahenea G75, Carcharhinus improvisus Smith 1952 C84, Carcharias lamiella Jordan & Gilbert 1882 C84, Carcharhinus lamiella C84, Carcharhinus remotoides Deng, Xiong & Zhan 1981 C84, Carcharhinus rochensis Abella 1972 C84]

Carcharhinus brevipinna (Müller & Henle 1839) C84 [=Carcharias (Aprion) brevipinna C84, Aprionodon brevipinna C84; incl. Longmania calamaria Whitley 1944 C84, A. caparti Poll 1951 C84, Carcharhinus johnsoni Smith 1951 C84, Isogomphodon maculipinnis Poey 1865 C84, Carcharhinus maculipinnis C84, Uranga nasuta Whitley 1943 C84, Carcharhinus nasuta G75]

Carcharhinus dussumieri (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) [=Carcharias (Prionodon) dussumieri; incl. Carcharias (P.) javanicus Bleeker 1852 non Carcharias javanicus van Hasselt 1823, Cacharias malabaricus Day 1873, Carcharias (P.) tjutjot Bleeker 1852] C84

Carcharhinus falciformis (Bibron in Müller & Henle 1839) C84 [=Carcharias (Prionodon) falciformis C84; incl. Carcharhinus atrodorsus Deng, Xiong & Zhan 1981 C84, Carcharias falcipinnis Lower 1839 C84, Carcharhinus floridanus Bigelow, Schroeder & Springer 1943 C84, Eulamia malpeloensis Fowler 1944 C84, Carcharias (P.) menisorrah Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839 C84, Carcharhinus menisorrah C84, Eulamia menisorrah M58, Gymnorhinus pharaonis Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899 C84, Gymnorrhinus pharaonis C84, Aprionodon sitankaiensis Herre 1931 C84, Prionodon tiburo Poey 1860 C84, Squalus tiburo non Linnaeus 1758 C84]

Carcharhinus hemiodon (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) C84 [=Carcharias (Hypoprion) hemiodon C84, Hypoprionodon hemiodon JR10; incl. Hypoprion atripinna Chu 1960 C84, Carcharias watu Setna & Sarangdhar 1946 C84]

Carcharhinus isodon (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) [=Carcharias (Aprion) isodon, Aprionodon isodon; incl. Aprionodon punctatus Gill 1861] C84

Carcharhinus leucas (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) C84 [=Carcharias (Prionodon) leucas C84; incl. Carcharias azureus Gilbert & Starks 1904 C84, Carcharhinus azureus C84, Galeolamna (Bogimba) bogimba Whitley 1943 C84, Carcharhinus bogimba G75, G. grayi mackaili Whitley 1943 C84, Eulamia nicaraquensis Gill & Bransford 1877 C84, Carcharhinus nicaraquensis C84, Squalus obtusus Poey 1861 C84, Prionodon obtusus C84, S. platyodon Poey 1861 C84, Carcharhinus platyodon C84, Carcharias spenceri Ogilby 1911 C84, Carcharhinus spenceri G75, Carcharhinus vanrooyeni Smith 1958 C84, Carcharias (Prionodon) zambezensis Peters 1852 C84, Carcharhinus zambezensis C84]

Carcharhinus limbatus (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) [=Carcharias (Prionodon) limbatus; incl. Gymnorhinus abbreviatus Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899, Gymnorrhinus abbreviatus, Carcharias aethlorus Jordan & Gilbert 1882, Carcharias ehrenbergi Klunzinger 1871, Carcharias maculipinna Günther 1868, Carcharias microps Low 1840, Carcharias (Prionodon) muelleri Steindachner 1867 non C. (Physodon) muelleri Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839, Carcharhinus natator Meek & Hildebrand 1923, Carcharias phorcys Jordan & Gilbert 1903, Carcharias (Pr.) pleurotaenia Bleeker 1852, Carcharhinus pleurotaenia, Galeolamna pleurotaenia tilsoni Whitley 1950] C84

Carcharhinus longimanus (Poey 1861) (nom. cons.) C84 [=Squalus longimanus C84, Prionodon longimanus S58, *Pterolamia longimanus S58, *Pterolamiops longimanus S58; incl. Pterolamiops budkeri Fourmanoir 1961 C84, Carcharias insularum Snyder 1904 C84, Pterolamiops insularum S58, Pterolamiops magnipinnis Smith 1958 C84, Squalus (Carcharias) maou Lesson 1830 C84, Carcharhinus maou C84, Carcharias (Prionodon) obtusus Garman 1881 non Squalus obtusus Poey 1861 C84]

*Carcharhinus melanopterus (Quoy & Gaimard 1824) C84 [=Carcharias melanopterus C84, Carcharias (Prionodon) melanopterus M58, Eulamia melanopterus M58; incl. Squalus (Carcharhinus) commersoni Blainville 1816 (n. n.) C84, Carcharinus commersonii Blainville 1825 G62, Carcharias elegans Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899 C84, Carcharias marianensis Engelhardt 1912 C84, Carcharias playfairi Günther 1870 C84, Hypoprion playfairi C84]

Carcharhinus obscurus (LeSueur 1818) C84 [=Squalus obscurus C84; incl. Galeolamna (Galeolamnoides) eblis Whitley 1944 C84, *G. greyi Owen 1853 G62, C84, Carcharhinus greyi C84, Carcharhinus iranzae Fourmanoir 1961 C84, Carcharias macrurus Ramsay & Ogilby 1887 C84, Carcharhinus macrurus G75, Galeolamna macrurus C84, Carcharhinus obscurella Deng, Xiong & Zhan 1981 C84, Prionodon obvelatus Valenciennes in Webb & Berholt 1844 C84]

Carcharhinus perezi (Poey 1876) [=Platypodon perezi; incl. Eulamia springeri Bigelow & Schroeder 1944, Carcharhinus springeri] C84

Carcharhinus plumbeus (Nardo 1827) C84 [=Squalus plumbeus C84; incl. Squalus caecchia Nardo 1847 C84, Carcharias ceruleus DeKay 1842 non Squalus (Carcharhinus) caeruleus Blainville 1825 C84, Lamna caudata DeKay 1842 C84, Galeolamna dorsalis Whitley 1944 C84, Carcharias (Prionodon) japonicus Schlegal 1850 C84, Carcharhinus japonicus C84, Carcharias latistomus Fang & Wang 1932 C84, Carcharias (P.) milberti Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839 C84, Carcharhinus milberti C84, Eulamia milberti C84, Carcharias obtusirostris Moreau 1881 C84, Carcharias stevensi Ogilby 1911 C84, Carcharhinus stevensi G75, Galeolamna stevensi C84]

Carcharhinus porosus (Ranzani 1839) [=Carcharias porosus; incl. Carcharhinus cerdale Gilbert in Jordan & Evermann 1898, Carcharias (Prionodon) henlei Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839] C84

Carcharhinus sealei (Pietschmann 1916) C84 [=Carcharias sealei C84, Carcharhias borneensis Seale 1910 non Bleeker 1859 C84; incl. Platypodon coatesi Whitley 1939 C84, Carcharhinus coatesi G75]

Carcharhinus sorrah (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) C84 [=Carcharias (Prionodon) sorrah C84, Eulamia sorrah M58; incl. Carcharias (P.) bleekeri Dumeril 1865 C84, Carcharhinus bleekeri C84, Galeolamna isobel Whitley 1947 C84, Squalus spallanzani Peron & LeSueur in LeSueur 1822 C84, Carcharhinus spallanzani C84, Mapolamia spallanzanii C84, Carcharias taeniatus Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899 C84]

‘Eulamia’ philippi Fowler 1930 (n. d.) [=Carcharias brachyrrhynchus Philippi 1887 non C. (Prionodon) brachyrhynchos Bleeker 1859] C84

Galeocerdo cuvier (Peron & LeSueur 1822) [=Squalus cuvier; incl. S. arcticus Faber 1829, *Galeocerdo arcticus, Galeus cepedianus Agassiz 1838, Carcharias (Prionodon) fasciatus Bleeker 1852, Carcharias hemprichii Hilgendorf in Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899, Galeus maculatus Ranzani 1840, Galeocerdo obtusus Klunzinger 1871, Galeocerdo rayneri McDonald & Barron 1868, Galeocerdo tigrinus Müller & Henle 1839] C84

Glyphis gangeticus (Müller & Henle 1839) [=Carcharias (Prionodon) gangeticus, Carcharhinus gangeticus, Eulamia gangetica, Platypodon gangeticus, Squalus gangeticus; incl. Carcharias murrayi Günther 1887] C84

*Isogomphodon oxyrhynchus (Müller & Henle 1839) C84 [=Carcharias (Prionodon) oxyrhynchus C84, Carcharhinus oxyrhynchus C84, Eulamia oxyrhinchus F16]

*Lamiopsis temmincki (Müller & Henle 1839) [=Carcharias (Prionodon) temmincki, Carcharhinus temmincki, Eulamia temmincki; incl. Carcharhinus microphthalmus Chu 1960, Carcharias tephrodes Fowler 1905] C84

*Loxodon macrorhinus Müller & Henle 1839 [incl. Scoliodon affinis Ogilby 1912, Carcharias albomarginatus Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899, S. ceylonensis Setna & Sarangdhar 1946, C. (Scoliodon) dumerili Bleeker 1865, S. jordani Ogilby 1908] C84

Negaprion acutidens (Rüppell 1837) [=Carcharias acutidens; incl. C. forskaelii Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899, *Hemigaleops forsteri Schultz in Schultz et al. 1953, *Mystidens innominatus Whitley 1944, Odontaspis madagascariensis Fourmanoir 1961, Carcharias munzingeri Kossmann & Raeuber 1877, Eulamia odontaspis Fowler 1908, Aprionodon acutidens queenslandicus Whitley 1939, *Negaprion queenslandicus] C84

Negaprion brevirostris (Poey 1868) [=Hypoprion brevirostris; incl. Carcharias fronto Jordan & Gilbert 1882, Negaprion fronto] C84

Prionace Cantor 1849 (nom. cons.) [incl. Cynocephalus Gill 1862 nec Boddaërt 1768 nec Geoffroy & Cuvier 1795, Galeus Garman 1913 nec Rafinesque 1810 nec Cuvier 1817 nec Leach 1818, Thalassinus Moreau 1881, Thalassorhinus Valenciennes in Bonaparte 1838] C84

*Prionace glauca (Linnaeus 1758) (nom. cons.) [=Squalus glaucus, Glyphis glauca; incl. S. adscentionis Osbeck 1765, Carcharias aethiops Philippi 1896, S. (Carcharhinus) caeruleus Blainville 1825, C. gracilis Philippi 1887, C. (Prionodon) hirundinaceus Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839, Hypoprion isodus Philippi 1887, Hemigaleus isodus, Prionace macki Phillipps 1935, Carcharias pugae Perez Canto 1886, Squalus rondeletii Risso 1810, Thalassinus rondeletii Moreau 1881, Galeus thalassinus Valenciennes in Cuvier 1835, Thalassorhinus vulpecula Valenciennes in Bonaparte 1838] C84

Rhizoprionodon acutus (Rüppell 1837) C84 [=Carcharias acutus C84; incl. C. aaronis Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1899 C84, C. (Scoliodon) crenidens Klunzinger 1879 C84, *Rhizoprion crenidens C84, *Rhizoprionodon crenidens C84, Carcharias eumeces Pietschmann 1913 C84, Scoliodon longmani Ogilby 1912 C84, Protozygaena longmani G75, Carcharias (Prionodon) sorrakowa Bleeker 1853 C84, Scoliodon sorrakowa C84, S. sorrakowah C84, S. vagatus Garman 1913 C84, C. (Scoliodon) walbeehmi Bleeker 1856 C84, S. walbeehmi C84, C. walbenii C84]

Rhizoprionodon lalandii (Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839) [=Carcharias (Scoliodon) lalandii, R. lalandei, Scoliodon lalandei; incl. S. intermedius Garman 1913] C84

*Scoliodon laticaudus Müller & Henle 1838 [=Carcharias (Scoliodon) laticaudus; incl. C. (S.) macrorhynchos Bleeker 1852, C. (Physodon) muelleri Valenciennes in Müller & Henle 1839, C. (Prionodon) palasorra Bleeker 1853, Scoliodon palasorra] C84

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[CDZ93] Cappetta, H., C. Duffin & J. Zidek. 1993. Chondrichthyes. In: Benton, M. J. (ed.) The Fossil Record 2 pp. 593–609. Chapman & Hall: London.

[C84] Compagno, L. J. V. 1984. FAO Species Catalogue vol. 4. Sharks of the World: An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Part 2—Carcharhiniformes. United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome.

[C77] Cope, E. D. 1877. Report upon the extinct Vertebrata obtained in New Mexico by parties of the expedition of 1874. Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian 4 (2): i–iv, 1–370.

[F16] Fowler, H. W. 1916. The fishes of Trinidad, Grenada, and St. Lucia, British West Indies. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 67 (3): 520–548.

[F91] Freess, W. B. 1991. Beiträge zur Kenntnis von Fauna und Flora des marinen Mitteloligozäns bei Leipzig. Altenburger Naturwissenschaftliche Forschungen 6: 3–74.

[G62] Garrick, J. A. F. 1962. Reasons in favor of retaining the generic name Carcharhinus Blainville, and a proposal for identifying its type species as the Indo-Pacific black-tipped shark, C. melanopterus. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 75: 89–96.

[G75] Grant, E. M. 1975. Guide to Fishes. The Co-ordinator-General’s Department: Brisbane (Australia).

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