Abies

Nikko fir Abies homolepis, copyright MPF.

Belongs within: Pinaceae.

Abies, the firs, is a genus of conifers with erect seed cones native to the Northern Hemisphere. Leaf scars are smooth, round and flush with the surface of the stem (Hickman 1993).

Characters (from Hickman 1993): Young bark smooth, with resin blisters, mature bark thick, deeply furrowed; young branches appearing whorled; twig glabrous or hairy; leaf scars smooth, round, flush with surface; bud generally more or less spheric, generally <1 cm, more or less resinous. Leaves 2–9 cm, sessile, twisted at base to become two-ranked, often curved upward on upper twigs, generally more or less flat; upper surface with two longitudinal, whitish bands, midrib sometimes depressed; lower surface with or without whitish bands, midrib sometimes ridge-like. Seed cone erect, <23 cm, maturing first season; stalk generally absent; bracts, scales deciduous; bract included in scale or exserted, free from scale; axis persistent on stem. Seed with obvious resin deposits on surface; wing <2.5 cm. 2n=24 (where known).

<==Abies
    |--A. alba Miller 1768 SM14
    |--A. amabilis W85
    |--A. balsamea HP03
    |--A. bituminosa P92
    |--A. bracteata [incl. A. venusta] H93
    |--A. cephalonica RCT96
    |--A. concolor [incl. A. concolora var. lowiana] H93
    |--A. excelsa C55
    |--A. fabri MM12
    |--A. firma MM12
    |--A. grandis C84
    |--A. holophylla MM12
    |--A. homolepis MM12
    |--A. lasiocarpa H93
    |--A. magnifica F56
    |    |--A. m. var. magnifica H93
    |    `--A. m. var. shastensis H93
    |--A. mariesii T85
    |--A. nebrodensis R-CT01
    |--A. nephrolepis S00
    |--A. numidica EH06
    |--A. pectinata [incl. Pinus picea] C55
    |--A. pindrow N02
    |--A. procera M87
    |--A. religiosa C-MM-R07
    |--A. sachalinensis T03
    `--A. veitchii MM12
         |--A. v. var. veitchii A70
         `--A. v. var. shikokiana A70

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[A70] Aoki, J. 1970. Descriptions of oribatid mites collected by smoking of trees with insecticides. I. Mt. Ishizuchi and Mt. Odaigahara. Bulletin of the National Science Museum, Tokyo 13 (4): 585–602.

[C55] Candolle, A. de. 1855. Géographie Botanique Raisonée: Ou exposition des faits principaux et des lois concernant la distribution géographique des plantes de l’époque actuelle vol. 2. Librairie de Victor Masson: Paris.

[C-MM-R07] Castaño-Meneses, G., & B. E. Mejía-Recamier. 2007. Community structure of mites in Tillandsia violacea (Bromeliaceae) from a temperate forest of central Mexico. In: Morales-Malacara, J. B., V. M. Behan-Pelletier, E. Ueckermann, T. M. Pérez, E. G. Estrada-Venegas & M. Badii (eds) Acarology XI: Proceedings of the International Congress pp. 657–664. Instituto de Biología and Faculdad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Sociedad Latinoamericana de Acarología: México.

[C84] Cokendolpher, J. C. 1984. Revision of the harvestman genus Leptobunus and dismantlement of the Leptobunidae (Arachnida: Opiliones: Palpatores). Journal of the New York Entomological Society 92 (4): 371–402.

[EH06] Eckert, A. J., & B. D. Hall. 2006. Phylogeny, historical biogeography, and patterns of diversification for Pinus (Pinaceae): phylogenetic tests of fossil-based hypotheses. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40 (1): 166–182.

[F56] Foote, R. H. 1956. Gall midges associated with cones of western forest trees (Diptera: Itonididae). Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 46 (2): 48–57.

[HP03] Hauck, M., A. Paul, S. Gross & M. Raubuch. 2003. Manganese toxicity in epiphytic lichens: chlorophyll degradation and interaction with iron and phosphorus. Environmental and Experimental Botany 49: 181–191.

[H93] Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press: Berkeley (California).

[MM12] Mao, K., R. I. Milne, L. Zhang, Y. Peng, J. Liu, P. Thomas, R. R. Mill & S. S. Renner. 2012. Distribution of living Cupressaceae reflects the breakup of Pangea. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 109 (20): 7793–7798.

[M87] McAlpine, J. F. 1987. Pallopteridae. In: McAlpine, J. F. (ed.) Manual of Nearctic Diptera vol. 2 pp. 839–843. Research Branch, Agriculture Canada.

[N02] Negi, H. R. 2002. Abundance and diversity of moss communities of Chopta-Tunganath in the Garhwal Himalaya. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 99 (3): 418–433.

[P92] Poinar, G. O., Jr. 1992. Life in Amber. Stanford University Press: Stanford.

[RCT96] Ragusa Di Chiara, S., & H. Tsolakis. 1996. A. survey of phytoseiid mites (Phytoseiidae) associated with various plants in Sicily (Italy). In: Mitchell, R., D. J. Horn, G. R. Needham & W. C. Welbourn (eds) Acarology IX vol. 1. Proceedings pp. 253–256. Ohio Biological Survey: Columbus (Ohio).

[R-CT01] Ragusa-di Chiara, S., & H. Tsolakis. 2001. Phytoseiid faunas of natural and agricultural ecosystems in Sicily. In: Halliday, R. B., D. E. Walter, H. C. Proctor, R. A. Norton & M. J. Colloff (eds) Acarology: Proceedings of the 10^th International Congress pp. 522–529. CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.

[S00] Siddiqi, M. R. 2000. Tylenchida: Parasites of plants and insects 2^nd ed. CABI Publishing: Wallingford (UK).

[SM14] Smith, G. B., & J. M. McRae. 2014. New species of subterranean silverfish (Zygentoma: Nicoletiidae: Atelurinae) from Western Australia's semi-arid Pilbara region. Records of the Western Australian Museum 29: 105–127.

[T85] Tsurusaki, N. 1985. Geographic variation of chromosomes and external morphology in the montanum-subgroup of the Leiobunum curvipalpe-group (Arachnida, Opiliones, Phalangiidae) with special reference to its presumable process of raciation. Zoological Science 2: 767–783.

[T03] Tsurusaki, N. 2003. Phenology and biology of harvestmen in and near Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan, with some taxonomical notes on Nelima suzukii n. sp. and allies (Arachnida: Opiliones). Acta Arachnologica 52: 5–24.

[W85] Walter, D. E. 1985. The effects of litter type and elevation on colonization of mixed coniferous litterbags by oribatid mites. Pedobiologia 28: 383–387.

Last updated: 18 July 2021.

Pinaceae

Norway spruce Picea abies, photographed by MPF.

Belongs within: Coniferophyta.
Contains: Abies, Pinus subg. Pinus, Pinus subg. Strobus.

The Pinaceae include the pines (Pinus), spruces (Picea), cedars (Cedrus) and related taxa. This is a primarily Northern Hemisphere family, with some species being the dominant tree species within their range. Pinus species differ from other members of the family in having cones that are biennial or triennial, while other genera grow new cones each year. Members of the genus Picea, the spruces, have whorled branches with needles attached singly in a spiral pattern. Larix, larches, are deciduous, dropping their needles over winter.

Characters (from J. W. Thieret): Trees (occasionally shrubs), evergreen (annually deciduous in Larix), resinous and aromatic, monoecious. Bark smooth to scaly or furrowed. Lateral branches well developed and similar to leading (long) shoots or reduced to well-defined short (spur) shoots (Pinus, Larix); twigs terete, sometimes clothed by persistent primary leaves or leaf bases; longest internodes less than 1cm; buds conspicuous. Roots fibrous to woody, unspecialized. Leaves (needles) simple, shed singly (except whole fascicles shed in Pinus), alternate and spirally arranged but sometimes proximally twisted so as to appear 1- or 2-ranked, or fascicled, linear to needlelike, sessile to short-petiolate; foliage leaves either borne singly (spirally) on long shoots or in tufts (fascicles) on short shoots; juvenile leaves (when present) borne on long shoots, scalelike; resin canals present. Pollen cones maturing and shed annually, solitary or clustered, axillary, ovoid to ellipsoid or cylindric; sporophylls overlapping, bearing 2 abaxial microsporangia (pollen sacs); pollen spheric, 2-winged, less commonly with wings reduced to frill (in Tsuga sect. Tsuga), or not winged (in Larix and Pseudotsuga). Seed cones maturing and shed in 1-3 seasons or long-persistent, sometimes serotinous (not opening upon maturity but much later: Pinus), compound, axillary, solitary or grouped; scales overlapping, free from subtending included or exserted bracts for most of length, spirally arranged, strongly flattened, at maturity relatively thin to strongly thickened and woody (in Pinus), with 2 inverted, adaxial ovules. Seeds 2 per scale, elongate terminal wing partially decurrent on seed body (wing short or absent in some species of Pinus); aril lacking; cotyledons 2-12[-18].

Pinaceae [Abietaceae, Abietinae, Pinales]
    |  i. s.: Pinites succinifer Göppert 1836 E01 [=Pinus succinifera P02]
    |         Nothotsuga CD07
    |         Compsostrobus neotericus MM12
    |         Schizolepidopsis HS17
    |--Cedrus EH06
    |    |--C. atlantica C55
    |    |--C. brevifolia D30
    |    |--C. deodara EH06
    |    `--C. libani C55
    `--+--+--+--Abies EH06
       |  |  `--Keteleeria EH06
       |  |       |--K. davidiana EH06
       |  |       `--K. evelyniana MM12
       |  `--+--Pseudolarix amabilis EH06
       |     `--Tsuga EH06
       |          |--T. canadensis SS96
       |          |--T. chinensis CP02
       |          |--T. dumosa SN88
       |          |--T. heterophylla C90
       |          |--T. mertensiana EH06
       |          `--T. sieboldii [incl. Abies tsuga] LO98
       `--+--+--Pseudotsuga EH06
          |  |    |--P. douglasii B88
          |  |    |--P. macrocarpa B14
          |  |    |--P. menziesii EH06
          |  |    `--P. taxifolia SW03
          |  `--Larix EH06
          |       |--L. decidua EH06
          |       |--L. gmelinii L02
          |       |    |--L. g. var. gmelinii F92
          |       |    `--L. g. var. japanica F92
          |       |--L. groenlandii TH03
          |       |--L. himalaica SN88
          |       |--L. kaemferi F92
          |       |--L. koreana F92
          |       |--L. laricina TH03
          |       |--L. leptolepis F92
          |       |--L. occidentalis MM12
          |       |--L. olbensis F92
          |       |--L. sibirica F92
          |       `--L. subczewii F92
          `--+--+--Cathaya argyrophylla EH06
             |  `--Picea EH06
             |       |--P. abies EH06
             |       |--P. alcoquiana [incl. Abies menziessi] LO98
             |       |--P. breweriana H93
             |       |--P. canadensis R38
             |       |--P. contorta F56
             |       |    |--P. c. var. contorta F56
             |       |    `--P. c. var. latifolia F56
             |       |--P. engelmannii H93
             |       |--P. excelsa M47
             |       |--P. glauca BFD01
             |       |--P. glehnii M03
             |       |--P. jezoensis JKW03
             |       |--P. mariana BFD01
             |       |--P. morrisonicola MM12
             |       |--P. orientalis U01
             |       |--P. rubens SR03
             |       |--P. sitchensis MM12
             |       `--P. smithiana MM12
             `--+--Pityostrobus bernissartensis MM12
                `--Pinus EH06
                     |  i. s.: P. abies S00
                     |         P. ayacahuite CG05
                     |         P. cooperi CG05
                     |         P. fenzeliana L02
                     |         P. kochiana CK05
                     |         P. larix S00
                     |         P. luchuensis SM03
                     |         P. maritima C55
                     |         P. montana SR03
                     |         P. occidentalis J87
                     |         P. palaeostrobus S89
                     |         P. pallasiana CK05
                     |         P. pringlei CG05
                     |         P. quadrifolia H93
                     |         P. rudis CG05
                     |         P. torreyana [incl. P. torreyana ssp. insularis] H93
                     |         P. uncinata C55
                     |--P. subg. Pinus EH06
                     `--P. subg. Strobus EH06

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[B88] Bouček, Z. 1988. Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera): A biosystematic revision of genera of fourteen families, with a reclassification of species. CAB International: Wallingford (UK).

[B14] Bouchard, P. (ed.) 2014. The Book of Beetles: A lifesize guide to six hundred of nature's gems. Ivy Press: Lewes (United Kingdom).

[BFD01] Bowman, J., G. J. Forbes & T. G. Dilworth. 2001. The spatial component of variation in small-mammal abundance measured at three scales. Canadian Journal of Zoology 79: 137–144.

[C55] Candolle, A. de. 1855. Géographie Botanique Raisonée: Ou exposition des faits principaux et des lois concernant la distribution géographique des plantes de l’époque actuelle vol. 2. Librairie de Victor Masson: Paris.

[CD07] Cantino, P. D., J. A. Doyle, S. W. Graham, W. S. Judd, R. G. Olmstead, D. E. Soltis, P. S. Soltis & M. J. Donoghue. 2007. Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta. Taxon 56 (3): E1–E44.

[CK05] Chemeris, A. N., & N. M. Kovblyuk. 2005. A contribution to the knowledge of the harvestman fauna of the Crimea (Arachnida: Opiliones). Arthropoda Selecta 14 (4): 305–328.

[CP02] Chung, S.-W., & C.-I. Peng. 2002. Senecio kuanshanensis (Asteraceae), a new species from southern Taiwan. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica 43: 155–159.

[CG05] Cognato, A. I., N. E. Gillette, R. C. Bolaños & F. A. H. Sperling. 2005. Mitochondrial phylogeny of pine cone beetles (Scolytinae, Conophthorus) and their affiliation with geographic area and host. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 36: 494–508.

[C90] Crawford, R. L. 1990. Discovery of Caviphantes saxetorum in North America; status of Scironis tarsalis (Araneida, Linyphiidae). Journal of Arachnology 18: 235–236.

[D30] Druce, G. C. 1930. Account of a botanical tour in Cyprus. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London 141: 50–52.

[EH06] Eckert, A. J., & B. D. Hall. 2006. Phylogeny, historical biogeography, and patterns of diversification for Pinus (Pinaceae): phylogenetic tests of fossil-based hypotheses. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40 (1): 166–182.

[E01] Engel, M. S. 2001. A monograph of the Baltic amber bees and evolution of the Apoidea (Hymenoptera). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 259: 1–192.

[F92] Fan Z. 1992. Key to the Common Flies of China 2^nd ed. Science Press: Beijing.

[F56] Foote, R. H. 1956. Gall midges associated with cones of western forest trees (Diptera: Itonididae). Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 46 (2): 48–57.

[HS17] Herrera, F., G. Shi, N. Ichinnorov, M. Takahashi, E. V. Bugdaeva, P. S. Herendeen & P. R. Crane. 2017. The presumed ginkgophyte Umaltolepis has seed-bearing structures resembling those of Peltaspermales and Umkomasiales. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA: E2385–E2391.

[H93] Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press: Berkeley (California).

[JKW03] Jacobs, K., T. Kirisits & M. J. Wingfield. 2003. Taxonomic re-evaluation of three related species of Graphium, based on morphology, ecology and phylogeny. Mycologia 95 (4): 714–727.

[J87] Judd, W. S. 1987. Floristic study of Morne La Visite and Pic Macaya National Parks, Haiti. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum—Biological Sciences 32 (1): 1–136.

[LO98] Lack, H. W., & H. Ohba. 1998. Die Xylothek des Chikusai Kato. Willdenowia 28: 263–276.

[L02] Li F. 2002. Psocoptera of China vol. 2. Science Press: Beijing.

[MM12] Mao, K., R. I. Milne, L. Zhang, Y. Peng, J. Liu, P. Thomas, R. R. Mill & S. S. Renner. 2012. Distribution of living Cupressaceae reflects the breakup of Pangea. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 109 (20): 7793–7798.

[M47] Mayr, E. 1947. Ecological factors in speciation. Evolution 1: 263–288.

[M03] Mockford, E. L. 2003. New species and records of Psocoptera from the Kuril Islands. Mitt. Mus. Nat.kd. Berl., Dtsch. Entomol. Z. 50 (2): 191–230.

[P02] Ponomarenko, A. G. 2002. Superorder Scarabaeidea Laicharting, 1781. Order Coleoptera Linné, 1758. The beetles. In: Rasnitsyn, A. P., & D. L. J. Quicke (eds) History of Insects pp. 164–176. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht.

[R38] Ross, H. H. 1938. The Nearctic species of Pikonema, a genus of spruce sawflies (Hymenoptera, Tenthredinidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 40 (1): 17–20.

[SM03] Saldarriaga, J. F., M. L. McEwan, N. M. Fast, F. J. R. Taylor & P. J. Keeling. 2003. Multiple protein phylogenies show that Oxyrrhis marina and Perkinsus marinus are early branches of the dinoflagellate lineage. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 53: 355–365.

[S00] Saussure, C. de. 1800. De l'influence du sol sur quelques parties constituantes des végétaux. Bulletin des Sciences, par la Societé Philomathique de Paris 2 (40): 124–125.

[SS96] Simberloff, D., & P. Stilling. 1996. How risky is biological control? Ecology 77 (7): 1965–1974.

[SR03] Skovgaard, K., S. Rosendahl, K. O’Donnell & H. I. Nirenberg. 2003. Fusarium commune is a new species identified by morphological and molecular phylogenetic data. Mycologia 95 (4): 630–636.

[SW03] Song, D., & Q. Wang. 2003. Systematics of the longicorn beetle genus Coptomma Newman (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae: Cerambycinae). Invertebrate Systematics 17: 429–447.

[S89] Squinabol, S. 1889. Res Ligusticae. VII.—Cenno preliminare sulla flora fossile di Santa Giustina. Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova, Serie 2^a, 7: 73–76.

[SN88] Suzuki, M., & S. Noshiro. 1988. Wood structure of Himalayan plants. In: Ohba, H., & S. B. Malla (eds) The Himalayan Plants vol. 1. The University Museum, University of Tokyo, Bulletin 31: 341–379.

[TH03] Tedford, R. H., & C. R. Harington. 2003. An Arctic mammal fauna from the Early Pliocene of North America. Nature 425: 388–390.

[U01] Urhan, R. 2001. Two new species of the genus Zercon Koch from Turkey (Acari: Gamasida: Zerconidae). Genus 12 (4): 589–597.

Last updated: 2 December 2018.

Mesangiospermae

Hornwort Ceratophyllum demersum, copyright Eyeweed.

Belongs within: Angiospermae.
Contains: Chloranthaceae, Magnoliidae, Monocotyledoneae, Ranunculales, Proteales, Buxanae, Gunneridae.

The Mesangiospermae were defined by Cantino et al. (2007) as the most inclusive crown clade including Platanus occidentalis but excluding Nymphaea odorata and Austrobaileya scandens; as such, it represents the clade of flowering plants excluding the basal ANITA grade. The clade is supported by molecular analyses, but reliable morphological synapomorphies have not yet been identified. The Mesangiospermae contains five well-supported clades—the monocotyledons, eudicotyledons, magnoliids, Chloranthaceae and Ceratophyllum—but relationships between these clades remain unsettled. Ceratophyllum, hornworts, is a cosmopolitan genus of aquatic plants bearing rings of forked leaves and lacking true roots.

The Eudicotyledoneae is the clade containing the majority of species previously grouped in flowering plant classifications as 'dicotyledons' (the characters uniting dicotyledons in the broad sense are now regarded as plesiomorphies of flowering plants as a whole). Eudicots are distinguished by the possession of tricolpate pollen grains; it is possible that the loss of oil cells in the mesophyll and the dry fruit wall also represents a synapomorphy of the clade (Cantino et al. 2007). Cantino et al. (2007) defined Eudicotyledoneae as the least inclusive clade containing Ranunculus, Platanus, Sabia, Trochodendron, Buxus and Helianthus.

<==Mesangiospermae [Ranales] CD07
    |--+--Chloranthaceae WM14
    |  `--Magnoliidae WM14
    `--+--Monocotyledoneae APG16
       `--+--Ceratophyllum Linnaeus 1753 KC01 [Ceratophyllaceae, Ceratophyllales APG16]
          |    |--C. demersum BL04
          |    |--C. furcatispinum CBH93
          |    `--C. submersum BL04
          `--Eudicotyledoneae (see below for synonymy) APG16
               |--Ranunculales SR07
               `--+--Proteales APG16
                  `--+--+--Buxanae APG16
                     |  `--Gunneridae SR07
                     `--Trochodendraceae [Trochodendrales] APG16
                          |--Tetracentron [Tetracentraceae, Tetracentroideae] CD07
                          |--Trochodendron [Trochodendroideae] CD07
                          |    `--T. aralioides Siebold & Zucc. 1838 CD07
                          `--Trochodendroides CBH93
                               |--T. arctica Z02
                               `--T. rhomboideus (Lesquereux) Berry 1922 CBH93

Eudicotyledoneae [Dilleniidae, Dillenianae, Ranunculanae, Ranunculidae, Sapindineae, Tricolpatae, Trochodendrineae] APG16

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[APG16] Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2016. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 181: 1–20.

[BL04] Barkman, T. J., S.-H. Lim, K. M. Salleh & J. Nais. 2004. Mitochondrial DNA sequences reveal the photosynthetic relatives of Rafflesia, the world’s largest flower. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 101 (3): 787–792.

[CD07] Cantino, P. D., J. A. Doyle, S. W. Graham, W. S. Judd, R. G. Olmstead, D. E. Soltis, P. S. Soltis & M. J. Donoghue. 2007. Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta. Taxon 56 (3): E1–E44.

[CBH93] Collinson, M. E., M. C. Boulter & P. L. Holmes. 1993. Magnoliophyta (‘Angiospermae’). In: Benton, M. J. (ed.) The Fossil Record 2 pp. 809–841. Chapman & Hall: London.

[KC01] Kirk, P. M., P. F. Cannon, J. C. David & J. A. Stalpers. 2001. Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi 9^th ed. CAB International: Wallingford (UK).

[SR07] Saarela, J. M., H. S. Rai, J. A. Doyle, P. K. Endress, S. Mathews, A. D. Marchant, B. G. Briggs & S. W. Graham. 2007. Hydatellaceae identified as a new branch near the base of the angiosperm phylogenetic tree. Nature 446: 312–315.

[WM14] Wickett, N. H., S. Mirarab, N. Nguyen, T. Warnow, E. Carpenter, N. Matasci, S. Ayyampalayam, M. S. Barker, J. G. Burleigh, M. A. Gitzendanner, B. R. Ruhfel, E. Wafula, J. P. Der, S. W. Graham, S. Mathews, M. Melkonian, D. E. Soltis, P. S. Soltis, N. W. Miles, C. J. Rothfels, L. Pokorny, A. J. Shaw, L. DeGeronimo, D. W. Stevenson, B. Surek, J. C. Villarreal, B. Roure, H. Philippe, C. W. dePamphilis, T. Chen, M. K. Deyholos, R. S. Baucom, T. M. Kutchan, M. M. Augustin, J. Wang, Y. Zhang, Z. Tian, Z. Yan, X. Wu, X. Sun, G. K.-S. Wong & J. Leebens-Mack. 2014. Phylotranscriptomic analysis of the origin and early diversification of land plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 111 (45): E4859–E4868.

[Z02] Zherikhin, V. V. 2002. Insect trace fossils. In: Rasnitsyn, A. P., & D. L. J. Quicke (eds) History of Insects pp. 303–324. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht.

Last updated: 18 July 2021.

Spermatophyta

Reconstruction of male reproductive structure of Sahnia nipaensis, from here.

Belongs within: Apo-Spermatophyta.
Contains: Cycadophyta, Coniferophyta, Arberiaceae, Pan-Gnetophyta, Pan-Angiospermae.

The name Spermatophyta was defined by Cantino et al. (2007) to represent the crown group of seed-bearing plants. Relationships within the spermatophytes remain uncertain: most morphological studies have supported a nested position for angiosperms among the remaining living taxa, but molecular analyses have supported a sister relationship between the angiosperms and living gymnosperms.

The clade Pan-Cycadophyta includes the cycads and all fossil taxa more closely related to them than other living seed plants. Known members of this clade are characterised by girdling leaf trances (Cantino et al. 2007), where leaf traces or veins leading to the leaf arise opposite the leaf attachment and circle the trunk within the storage tissue (Cycad Pages).

Fossil spermatophytes outside the major living lineages (cycads, conifers, gnetaleans and angiosperms) are mostly of the pteridosperm ('seed fern') grade, but some such as members of the Permian genus Glossopteris were large trees with entire leaves. The Pentoxylaceae are a group of plants (probably shrubs and small trees) known from the Jurassic, characterised by polystelic stems with a separate arrangement of vascular tissues for each stele. The Emplectopteridaceae were Permian pteridosperms with pinnate or entire leaves bearing flexuous or loosely anastomosed venation, and bilateral ovules attached to the underside of the leaves.

Possible synapomorphies (from Cantino et al. 2007): Endarch primary xylem in the stem, meiospores and microgametophytes with distal aperture, linear tetrad of megaspores, platyspermic ovules.

Spermatophyta [Acrogymnospermae, Phanerogamia, Pinophyta, Spermatophytatinae, Spermatophytina, Spermatopsida]
    |--Pan-Cycadophyta [Cycadopsida] CD07
    |    |  i. s.: Anomozamites RY03
    |    |         Antarcticycas CD07
    |    |         Michelilloa CD07
    |    |--Nilssoniaceae [Nilssoniales] Z02
    |    `--+--Semionogyna Z02
    |       `--Cycadophyta FC07
    `--+--Coniferophyta FC07
       `--+--Arberiaceae FC07
          |--+--Pan-Gnetophyta FC07
          |  `--Pan-Angiospermae FC07
          `--Pentoxylaceae [Pentoxylales] RL09
               |  i. s.: ‘Taeniopteris’ spatulata McClelland 1850 C93
               |--Pentoxylon sahnii Srivastava 1944 FC07, C93
               |--Nympaniophyllum hobsoni RL09
               |--Nipanioxylon guptai Srivastava 1944 C93
               |--Nipaniophyllum raoi Sahni 1948 C93
               |--Carnoconites RL09
               |    |--C. compactum Srivastava 1944 C93
               |    `--C. rajmahalensis (Wieland) Bose et al. 1984 C93
               `--Sahnia RL09
                    |--S. laxiphora PL12
                    `--S. nipaniensis Vishnu-Mittre 1953 C93

Spermatophyta incertae sedis:
  Emplectopteridaceae [Gigantonomiales, Gigantopteridaceae] Z02
    |--Gigantotheca paradoxa Li & Yao 1983 C93
    |--Emplectopteris Halle 1927 C93
    |    `--E. triangularis Halle 1927 C93
    |--Gigantonomia Li & Yao 1983 C93
    |    `--G. fukiensis (Yabe & Oishi) Li & Yao 1983 C93
    `--Gigantopteris Schenk 1883 C93
         |--G. americana D56
         `--G. taiyuanensis (Asama) Meyen 1987 C93
  Sanmiguelia PL12
  Balmeiopsis limbatus (Balme) Archangelsky 1979 I02
  Elaterocolpites castelainii Jardiné & Magloire 1965 I02
  Elateroplicites africaensis Herngreen 1973 I02
  Elaterosporites I02
    |--E. klaszii (Jardiné & Magloire) Jardiné 1967 I02
    `--E. verrucatus I02
  Galeacornea I02
    |--G. causea Stover 1963 I02
    `--G. clavis Stover 1963 I02
  Steevesipollenites sinuosus Azema & Boltenhagen 1974 I02
  Herodontia mikanioides J87
  Scolosanthus J87
    |--S. densiflorus J87
    `--S. selleanus J87
  Graffenrieda chrysandra J87
  Hottea torbeciana J87
  Reedia spathacea JK08
  Cycadopites PL12
    |--C. carpentieri (Delcourt & Sprumont) Singh 1964 I02
    |--C. durhamensis PL12
    |--C. follicularis PL12
    `--C. fragilis Singh 1964 I02
  Scalesia pedunculata HSS13
  Synangispadixis tidwellii PL12
  Cacabus miersii RJ11
  Leucosphaera Gilg 1897 KC01
  Monoceras Gothan 1909 KC01
  Preussiella Gilg 1897 KC01
  Rotularia Sternb. 1825 KC01

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[CD07] Cantino, P. D., J. A. Doyle, S. W. Graham, W. S. Judd, R. G. Olmstead, D. E. Soltis, P. S. Soltis & M. J. Donoghue. 2007. Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta. Taxon 56 (3): E1–E44.

[C93] Cleal, C. J. 1993. Gymnospermophyta. In: Benton, M. J. (ed.) The Fossil Record 2 pp. 795–808. Chapman & Hall: London.

[FC07] Friis, E. M., P. R. Crane, K. R. Pedersen, S. Bengtson, P. C. J. Donoghue, G. W. Grimm & M. Stampanoni. 2007. Phase-contrast X-ray microtomography links Cretaceous seed with Gnetales and Bennettitales. Nature 450: 549–552.

[HSS13] Hirschfeld, E., A. Swash & R. Still. 2013. The World's Rarest Birds. Princeton University Press: Princeton (New Jersey).

[I02] Ibrahim, M. I. A. 2002. Late Albian-Middle Cenomanian palynofacies and palynostratigraphy, Abu Gharadig-5 well, Western Desert, Egypt. Cretaceous Research 23: 775–788.

[JK08] Johnstone, R. E., & T. Kirkby. 2008. Distribution, status, social organisation, movements and conservation of Baudin's cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus baudinii) in south-west Western Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum 25 (1): 107–118.

[J87] Judd, W. S. 1987. Floristic study of Morne La Visite and Pic Macaya National Parks, Haiti. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum—Biological Sciences 32 (1): 1–136.

[KC01] Kirk, P. M., P. F. Cannon, J. C. David & J. A. Stalpers. 2001. Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi 9^th ed. CAB International: Wallingford (UK).

[PL12] Peñalver, E., C. C. Labandeira, E. Barrón, X. Delclòs, P. Nel, A. Nel, P. Tafforeau & C. Soriano. 2012. Thrips pollination of Mesozoic gymnosperms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 109 (22): 8623–8628.

[RL09] Ren, D., C. C. Labandeira, J. A. Santiago-Blay, A. Rasnitsyn, C. Shih, A. Bashkuev, M. A. V. Logan, C. L. Hotton & D. Dilcher. 2009. A probable pollination mode before angiosperms: Eurasian, long-proboscid scorpionflies. Science 326: 840–847.

[RY03] Ren, D., & J. Yin. 2003. New ‘osmylid-like’ fossil Neuroptera from the Middle Jurassic of Inner Mongolia, China. Journal of the New York Entomological Society 111 (1): 1–11.

[RJ11] Rising, J. D., A. Jaramillo, J. L. Copete, P. G. Ryan & S. C. Madge. 2011. Family Emberizidae (buntings and New World sparrows). In: Hoyo, J. del, A. Elliott & D. A. Christie (eds) Handbook of the Birds of the World vol. 16. Tanagers to New World Blackbirds pp. 428–683. Lynx Edicions: Barcelona.

[Z02] Zherikhin, V. V. 2002. Ecological history of the terrestrial insects. In: Rasnitsyn, A. P., & D. L. J. Quicke (eds) History of Insects pp. 331–388. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht.

Last updated: 31 January 2020.

Araucariaceae

Norfolk Island pine Araucaria excelsa, photographed by Danielle Langlois.

Belongs within: Cupressophyta.

The Araucariaceae is a family of thirty-five living species of conifer found in South America and the south-western Pacific region. Members of the genus Agathis have hard and smooth bark and petiolate leaves; species of Agathis are found between the Philippines, eastern Australia and Polynesia with a single species A. australis, the kauri, found in northern New Zealand. Species of Araucaria and Wollemia nobilis have rough, exfoliating bark and sessile leaves that are spirally arranged in Araucaria but opposite in Wollemia nobilis. Some are popular ornamental trees; the Norfolk Island pine Araucaria excelsa is particularly popular for its remarkably geometrical, conical shape.

Characters (from Allan 1961): Plants mostly dioecious. Male strobili with numerous sporophylls. Female cones woody, terminal on short branchlets. Carpidia numerous, spirally arranged; two or four cotyledons present.

Araucariaceae [Araucarinae]
    |  i. s.: Araucarioides P00
    |         Araucarites Presl 1838 BO02
    |           |--A. cutchensis F71
    |           |--A. falsanii BO02
    |           |--A. indica Lele 1962 C93
    |           |--A. janaianus BO02
    |           `--A. parsorensis Lele 1955 C93
    |         Woodworthia arizonica Jeffrey 1910 CA04
    |--+--Wollemia nobilis MM12
    |  `--Agathis Salisbury 1807 MM12, A61
    |       |--A. alba JD05
    |       |--A. australis Salisb. 1807 (see below for synonymy) A61
    |       |--A. dammara MM12
    |       |--A. palmerstoni H42
    |       `--A. robust W95
    `--Araucaria MM12
         |--A. angustifolia CL-Z03
         |--A. araucana (Molina) Koch 1873 CD07
         |--A. balansae GT02
         |--A. balcombensis P00
         |--A. bidwillii M94
         |--A. biramulata M94
         |--A. brasiliensis MM96
         |--A. carinatus P00
         |--A. columnaris M94
         |--A. cunninghamii GT02
         |--A. excelsa GT02
         |--A. fletcheri Selling 1950 F71
         |--A. heterophylla NM11
         |--A. hunsteinii K77
         |--A. imbricata V01
         |--A. macrophylla GT02
         `--A. mirabilis MM12

Agathis australis Salisb. 1807 [=Dammara australis Don in Lamb. 1824; incl. Podocarpus zamiaefolius Rich. 1832] A61

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[A61] Allan, H. H. 1961. Flora of New Zealand vol. 1. Indigenous Tracheophyta: Psilopsida, Lycopsida, Filicopsida, Gymnospermae, Dicotyledones. R. E. Owen, Government Printer: Wellington (New Zealand).

[BO02] Barale, G., & M. Ouaja. 2002. La biodiversité végétale des gisements d’âge Jurassique supérieur-Crétacé inférieur de Merbah El Asfer (Sud-Tunisien). Cretaceous Research 23: 707–737.

[CD07] Cantino, P. D., J. A. Doyle, S. W. Graham, W. S. Judd, R. G. Olmstead, D. E. Soltis, P. S. Soltis & M. J. Donoghue. 2007. Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta. Taxon 56 (3): E1–E44.

[CL-Z03] Carbayo, F., & A. M. Leal-Zanchet. 2003. Two new genera of geoplaninid land planarians (Platyhelminthes: Tricladida: Terricola) of Brazil in the light of cephalic specialisations. Invertebrate Systematics 17: 449–468.

[C93] Cleal, C. J. 1993. Gymnospermophyta. In: Benton, M. J. (ed.) The Fossil Record 2 pp. 795–808. Chapman & Hall: London.

[CA04] Creber, G. T., & S. R. Ash. 2004. The Late Triassic Schilderia adamanica and Woodworthia arizonica trees of the Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona, USA. Palaeontology 47: 21–38.

[F71] Fletcher, H. O. 1971. Catalogue of type specimens of fossils in the Australian Museum, Sydney. Australian Museum Memoir 13: 1–167.

[GT02] Gomez, B., F. Thévenard, M. Fantin & L. Guisberti. 2002. Late Cretaceous plants from the Bonarelli Level of the Venetian Alps, northeastern Italy. Cretaceous Research 23: 671–685.

[H42] Hill, G. F. 1942. Termites (Isoptera) from the Australian Region (including Australia, New Guinea and islands south of the Equator between 140°E. longitude and 170°W. longitude). Commonwealth of Australia Council for Scientific and Industrial Research: Melbourne.

[JD05] Junge, F. W., M. Dolezych, H. Walther, T. Böttger, A. Kühl, L. Kunzmann, P. Morgenstern, T. Steinberg & R. Stange. 2005. Ein Fenster in Landschaft und Vegetation vor 37 Millionen Jahren: Lithologische, sedimentgeochemische und paläobotanische Befunde aus einem Paläoflusssystem des Weißelsterbeckens. Mauritiana 19 (2): 185–273.

[K77] Koch, L. E. 1977. The taxonomy, geographic distribution and evolutionary radiation of Australo-Papuan scorpions. Records of the Western Australian Museum 5 (2): 83–367.

[MM12] Mao, K., R. I. Milne, L. Zhang, Y. Peng, J. Liu, P. Thomas, R. R. Mill & S. S. Renner. 2012. Distribution of living Cupressaceae reflects the breakup of Pangea. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 109 (20): 7793–7798.

[M94] May, B. M. 1994. An introduction to the immature stages of Australian Curculionoidea. In: Zimmerman, E. C. Australian Weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionoidea) vol. 2. Brentidae, Eurhynchidae, Apionidae and a chapter on immature stages by Brenda May pp. 365–728. CSIRO Australia.

[MM96] Mound, L. A., & R. Marullo. 1996. The thrips of Central and South America: an introduction (Insecta: Thysanoptera). Memoirs on Entomology, International 6: 1–487.

[NM11] Nagalingum, N. S., C. R. Marshall, T. B. Quental, H. S. Rai, D. P. Little & S. Mathews. 2011. Recent synchronous radiation of a living fossil. Science 334: 796–799.

[P00] Pole, M. S. 2000. Mid-Cretaceous conifers from the Eromanga Basin, Australia. Australian Systematic Botany 13 (2): 153–197.

[V01] Vánky, K. 2001. The emended Ustilaginaceae of the modern classificatory system for smut fungi. Fungal Diversity 6: 131–147.

[W95] Wang, Q. 1995. A taxonomic revision of the Australian genus Phoracantha Newman (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). Invertebrate Taxonomy 9: 865–958.

Last updated: 26 June 2020.

Angiospermae

Specimen of Amborella trichopoda, photographed by Stan Shebs.

Belongs within: Pan-Angiospermae.
Contains: Nymphaeales, Austrobaileyales, Mesangiospermae.

The Angiospermae are the flowering plants, one of the most speciose clades of plants alive today. Cantino et al. (2007) defined the angiosperms as a crown clade (specifically, the most inclusive crown clade containing Zea mays but not Cycas, Ginkgo, Gnetum or Pinus). Within the angiosperms, recent phylogenies are in agreement that the so-called 'ANITA grade' (named as an acronym for its component taxa: Amborella, Nymphaeales, Illicium, Trimenia, Austrobaileya) contains the outgroup(s) to the remaining angiosperms (dubbed the Mesangiospermae by Cantino et al. 2007). Within the ANITA grade, the Austrobaileyales (the -ITA) are most often identified as the direct sister group to the mesangiosperms, with Nymphaeales and Amborella as successively more distant sister groups. Amborella trichopoda is a small sprawling understorey shrub endemic to New Caledonia, previously classified with the Laurales before its recognition as the basalmost living angiosperm. It has apparently two-ranked exstipulate leaves with serrated or rippled margins. Plants are dioecious with small flowers with an undifferentiated perianth. Fruits are red drupes with a papery skin. Amborella trichopoda is distinguished from many other angiosperms in that its xylem lacks vessels, cells with perforated ends allowing for direct transmission of fluids between cells, and contains only tracheids, cells with pits in the end walls. However, vessels are also absent in Hydatellaceae, and the vessel morphology of Nymphaeales differs from that of Mesangiospermae and Austrobaileyales, so it remains uncertain when and how often vessels originated in flowering plants (Angiosperm Phylogeny Website).

The earliest fossils of likely crown-group angiosperms are known from the early Cretaceous with angiosperms becoming a dominant part of the flora in the latter part of that period. Earlier fossil leaves attributed to the holding genus Phyllites (used for fossil leaves of uncertain affinities) may indicate an earlier origin for angiosperms but are not definitive.

Synapomorphies (from Cantino et al. 2007): Closed carpel developing into a fruit; ovule with two integuments; female gametophyte highly reduced, usually with no more than eight nuclei; endosperm resulting from double fertilisation; microgametophyte with three nuclei; two or more orders of leaf venation; axially aligned companion cells derived from same mother cells as sieve elements; pollen with unlaminated endexine; stamen with two pairs of pollen sacs.

Angiospermae (see below for synonymy)
    |--Amborella [Amborellaceae, Amborellales] WM14
    |    `--A. trichopoda Baill. 1869 CD07
    `--+--Nymphaeales WM14
       `--+--Austrobaileyales WM14
          `--Mesangiospermae WM14

Angiospermae incertae sedis:
  Tristerix tetrandrus BS01
  Kagenkia oblonga BS01
  ×Citrofortunella microcarpa C-R02
  Dicotilophyllum GT02
    |--D. altenburgense JD05
    |--D. pusillum Z02
    `--D. spatulatium GT02
  Phyllites GT02
    |--P. eucalyptroides H79
    |--P. platanoides GT02
    `--P. proteaceus Bozzi 1891 GT02
  Carcophyllum leogianense GT02
  Mancuna deeringiana KH02
  Adenocalymma paulistarum HH03
  Parapiptadenia excelsa HH03
  Forrestia griffithii K03
  Helecia serrata K03
  Schindapsus perakensis K03
  Pentastemona [Pentastemonaceae] H03
  Appomattoxia T00
  Zippelia T00
  Cynocrambe [Cynocrambaceae] YY22
  Pileus conica RN72b
  Osmaronia dioica GM96
  ‘Doliostrobus’ rerollei Marion 1884 K02
  Tristellateia australasiae P88
  Mira undulata Colenso 1845 C45
  Afropollis I02
    |--A. jardinus (Brenner) Doyle et al. 1982 I02
    `--A. kahramanensis Ibrahim & Schrank 1995 I02
  Diporocolpopollenites Yi & Batten 2002 YB02
    `--*D. kachiensis Yi & Batten 2002 YB02
  Dilwynites Harris 1965 YB02
    `--*D. granulatus Harris 1965 YB02
  Bratzevaea amurensis (Bratzeva) Takahashi in Takahashi & Shimono 1982 YB02
  Callistopollenites YB02
    |--C. comis Srivastava 1969 YB02
    `--C. tumidoporus Srivastava 1969 YB02
  Caryapollenites YB02
    |--C. scabratus Groot & Groot 1962 YB02
    `--C. triangulus (Pflug) Krutzsch 1961 YB02
  Cranwellia YB02
    |--C. edmontonensis Srivastava 1967 YB02
    `--C. striata (Couper) Srivastava 1967 YB02
  Fibulapollis mirificus (Chlonova) Chlonova 1961 YB02
  Jianghanpollis YB02
    |--J. mikros Wang & Zhao 1979 YB02
    `--J. radiatus Wang & Zhao 1979 YB02
  Leptopecopites pocockii (Srivastava) Srivastava 1978 YB02
  Penetetrapites inconspicuus Sweet 1986 YB02
  Porocolpopollenites vestibulum (Potonié) Thomson & Pflug 1953 YB02
  Retitrescolpites Sah 1967 YB02
  Tricolpites Cookson ex Couper 1953 YB02
    |--T. brevicolpus V12
    |--T. lilliei V12
    |--T. microreticulatus Belsky, Boltenhagen & Potonié 1965 CP02
    |--T. parvus Stanley 1965 I02
    |--T. reticulatus Cookson 1947 YB02
    `--T. vulgaris (Pierce) Srivastava 1969 I02
  Tricolporites prolata Cookson 1947 YB02
  Wodehouseia spinata Stanley 1961 YB02
  Brenneripollis peroreticulatus (Brenner) Juhász & Góczán 1985 I02
  Cretacaeiporites I02
    |--C. densimurus Schrank & Ibrahim 1995 I02
    `--C. polygonalis I02
  Dichastopollenites ghazalatensis Ibrahim 1996 I02
  Integritetradites porosus Schrank & Mahmoud 2000 I02
  Rousea I02
    |--R. delicipollis Srivastava 1977 I02
    `--R. miculipollis Srivastava 1975 I02
  Striatopollis trochuensis (Srivastava) Farabee & Canright 1986 I02
  Delinea indica YZ02
  Payena lucida CK06
  Dolichoglottis scorzoneroides W91
  Rhoipites cryptoporus Srivastava 1972 YB02
  Strepsolon jamesonii MM96
  Acomastylis rossii GS99
  Cocconia sessifolia RN72a
  Atrichodendron APG16
  Hirania APG16
  Chattacchloia italica P09
  Cyclobalanopsis glauca LI89
  Fasanus acuminatus R35
  Blighia F11
    |--B. sapida F11
    `--B. unijugata DP72
  Loureira Cavanilles 1799 C99
    |--L. cuneifolia Cavanilles 1799 C99
    `--L. glandulosa Cavanilles 179 C99
  Omphalocarpum Beauvois 1800 B00
  Merendera bulbocodium Ramond 1801 R01
  Antholithes wellsi Brown 1956 B56
  Malocathrix glabrata S38
  Cyanella alba LY82
  Quoya cuneata [=Pityrodia cuneata] H18
  Petalostemon oligophyllus C01
  Lepachys C01
    |--L. columnaris C01
    `--L. tagetes C01
  Loranthophyllum dubium H79
  Galeobdolon luteum R13
  Jeffersonia diphylla SBM11
  Archaeanthus linnenbergeri SBM11
  Helonias bullata SBM11
  Notaphoebe umbelliflora [incl. Mastixia cuneata Bl. 1850] M77
  Hibiscadelphus D81
    |--H. bombycinas D81
    |--H. distans W92
    `--H. wilderianus D81
  Calvaria major D81
  Cordeauxia edulis D81
  Schwartzia simplex WL10
  Bertholletia excelsa KSM06
  Bolivaria [Bolivariaceae] G39
    |--B. integrifolia G39
    `--B. trifida G39

Angiospermae [Angiospermophyta, Angiospermopsida, Annonanae, Annoniflorae, Anthophyta, Archichlamydeae, Centrolepideae, Chloranthineae, Dicotyledoneae, Dicotyledones, Epigynae, Incompletae, Magnolianae, Magnoliopsida, Nymphaeidae, Polypetalae, Thalamifloreae]

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[APG16] Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. 2016. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 181: 1–20.

[BS01] Bannister, P., & G. L. Strong. 2001. The distribution and population structure of the temperate mistletoe Ileostylus micranthus in the Northern Cemetery, Dunedin, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 39: 225-233.

[B00] Beauvois, C. 1800. Omphalocarpum, nouveau genre de plante. Bulletin des Sciences, par la Societé Philomathique de Paris 2 (43): 146–147.

[B56] Brown, R. W. 1956. New items in Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the western United States. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 46 (4): 104–108.

[CK06] Campbell, P., & T. H. Kunz. 2006. Cynopterus horsfieldii. Mammalian Species 802: 1–5.

[CD07] Cantino, P. D., J. A. Doyle, S. W. Graham, W. S. Judd, R. G. Olmstead, D. E. Soltis, P. S. Soltis & M. J. Donoghue. 2007. Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of Tracheophyta. Taxon 56 (3): E1–E44.

[C99] Cavanilles, M. 1799. Sur le Loureira. Bulletin des Sciences, par la Societé Philomathique de Paris 2 (25): 3.

[CP02] Christopher, R. A., & D. C. Prowell. 2002. A palynological biozonation for the Maastrichtian stage (Upper Cretaceous) of South Carolina, USA. Cretaceous Research 23: 639–669.

[C01] Cockerell, T. D. A. 1901. Contributions from the New Mexico Biological Station.—X. Observations on bees collected at Las Vegas, New Mexico, and in the adjacent mountains. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, series 7, 7: 125–131.

[C45] Colenso, W. 1845. Memoranda of an excursion, made in the Northern Island of New Zealand, in the summer of 1841-2; intended as a contribution towards the natural productions of the New Zealand groupe: with particular reference to their botany (concluded). Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science 2: 241–308.

[C-R02] Corpuz-Raros, L. A. 2002. Philippine acarine biological control agents: status, bioecology and research prospects. Philippine Agricultural Scientist 85 (2): 137–154.

[D81] Day, D. 1981. The Doomsday Book of Animals: A unique natural history of three hundred vanished species. Ebury Press: London.

[DP72] Deighton, F. C., & K. A. Pirozynski. 1972. Microfungi. V. More hyperparasitic hyphomycetes. Mycological Papers 128: 1–110.

[F11] Fraga, R. M. 2011. Family Icteridae (New World blackbirds). In: Hoyo, J. del, A. Elliott & D. A. Christie (eds) Handbook of the Birds of the World vol. 16. Tanagers to New World Blackbirds pp. 684–807. Lynx Edicions: Barcelona.

[GS99] Galen, C., & M. L. Stanton. 1999. Seedling establishment in alpine buttercups under experimental manipulations of growing-season length. Ecology 80: 2033–2044.

[GT02] Gomez, B., F. Thévenard, M. Fantin & L. Guisberti. 2002. Late Cretaceous plants from the Bonarelli Level of the Venetian Alps, northeastern Italy. Cretaceous Research 23: 671–685.

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Last updated: 27 March 2021.