Lacertoidea

Red worm lizard Amphisbaena alba, photographed by Diogo B. Provete.

Belongs within: Lepidosauria.
Contains: Lacertidae, Gymnophthalmidae, Teiidae.

The Lacertoidea are a group of lizards including the Old World Lacertidae and the New World Teioidea. It has recently been indicated that the Amphisbaenia, burrowing lizards with reduced or absent limbs, are also members of this clade (Müller et al. 2011). Members of the genus Bipes of southern North America retain small forelimbs whereas other amphisbaenians are limbless.

Potential lacertoids also include the Polyglyphanodontia, an Upper Cretaceous group of lizards characterised by tricuspid teeth, subapical tooth implantation, a V-shaped dentary symphysis, and a long splenial that slots into the subdental shelf (Longrich et al. 2012).

<==Lacertoidea L05
    |--Lacertibaenia MH11
    |    |--Lacertidae MH11
    |    `--+--Cryptolacerta Müller, Hipsley et al. 2011 MH11
    |       |    `--*C. hassiaca Müller, Hipsley et al. 2011 MH11
    |       `--Amphisbaenia MH11
    |            |  i. s.: Spathorhynchus fossorium MH11
    |            |         Plesiorhineura LBG12
    |            |         Oligodontosaurus LBG12
    |            |         Anniealexandria LBG12
    |            |--Rhineura [Rhineuridae] MH11
    |            |    |--R. floridana MH11
    |            |    `--R. hatcherii MH11
    |            `--+--+--Blanus Wagler 1830 B89 [Blanidae MH11]
    |               |  |    |--B. cinereus MH11
    |               |  |    `--B. strauchi MH11
    |               |  `--Bipes [Bipedidae] MH11
    |               |       |--B. biporus MH11
    |               |       |--B. canaliculatus MH11
    |               |       `--B. tridactylus MH11
    |               `--+--Trogonophidae MH11
    |                  |    |--Trogonophis wiegmanni MH11
    |                  |    `--Diplometophon zarudnyi MH11
    |                  `--Amphisbaenidae MH11
    |                       |--Omoiotyphlops gracilis B89
    |                       |--Loveridgea ionidesii MH11
    |                       `--Amphisbaena Linnaeus 1758 L58
    |                            |--A. alba Linnaeus 1758 L58
    |                            |--A. cubana GH01
    |                            |--A. ewerbecki XS11
    |                            |--A. fuliginosa Linnaeus 1758 L58
    |                            |    |--A. f. fuliginosa DS86
    |                            |    |--A. f. bassleri DS86
    |                            |    `--A. f. varia DS86
    |                            `--A. xera MH11
    `--+--Teioidea MH11
       |    |--Gymnophthalmidae MH11
       |    `--Teiidae MH11
       `--Polyglyphanodontia [Borioteiioidea] LBG12
            |  i. s.: Obamadon Longrich, Bhullar & Gauthier 2012 LBG12
            |           `--*O. gracilis Longrich, Bhullar & Gauthier 2012 LBG12
            |         Cnephasaurus LBG12
            |         Glyptogenys LBG12
            |         Sphenosaigon LBG12
            |         Dicothodon LBG12
            |         Geronticeps LBG12
            |         Kleskunsaurus LBG12
            |--Chamopsiidae LBG12
            |    |--Tripennaculus eatoni LBG12
            |    `--+--Leptochamops segnis LBG12
            |       `--+--Meniscognathus altmani LBG12
            |          |--Peneteius aquilonius LBG12
            |          `--+--+--Chamops segnis MH11, LBG12
            |             |  `--Haptosphenus placodon LBG12
            |             `--+--Stypodontosaurus melletes LBG12
            |                `--Socognathus Gao & Fox 1996 LBG12
            |                     |--*S. unicuspis Gao & Fox 1996 LBG12
            |                     `--S. brachyodon Longrich, Bhullar & Gauthier 2012 LBG12
            `--+--Adamisaurus MH11
               `--+--+--Gobinatus MH11
                  |  `--+--Erdenetesaurus MH11
                  |     `--Cherminsaurus MH11
                  `--Polyglyphanodontidae [Polyglyphanodontia] MH11
                       |--Polyglyphanodon Gilmore 1940 MH11, D07
                       |    |--P. bajaensis SBL05
                       |    `--P. sternbergi SBL05
                       `--+--Sineoamphisbaena Wu, Brinkman et al. 1993 MH11, D07
                          |    `--S. hexatubularis D07
                          `--+--Macrocephalosaurus ferrugenous MH11, LBG12
                             `--Darchansaurus MH11

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[B89] Bailon, S. 1989. Les amphibiens et les reptiles du Pliocene superieur de Balaruc II (Herault, France). Palaeovertebrata 19 (1): 7–28.

[D07] Dixon, D. 2007. The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Creatures. Hermes House: London.

[DS86] Dixon, J. R., & P. Soini. 1986. The Reptiles of the Upper Amazon Basin, Iquitos Region, Peru. Milwaukee Public Museum: Milwaukee.

[GH01] Garrido, O. H., & S. B. Hedges. 2001. A new anole from the northern slope of the Sierra Maestra in eastern Cuba (Squamata: Iguanidae). Journal of Herpetology 35 (3): 378–383.

[L05] Lee, M. S. Y. 2005. Squamate phylogeny, taxon sampling, and data congruence. Organisms, Diversity & Evolution 5: 25–45.

[L58] Linnaeus, C. 1758. Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Laurentii Salvii: Holmiae.

[LBG12] Longrich, N. R., B.-A. S. Bhullar & J. A. Gauthier. 2012. Mass extinction of lizards and snakes at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 109 (52): 21396–21401.

[MH11] Müller, J., C. A. Hipsley, J. J. Head, N. Kardjilov, A. Hilger, M. Wuttke & R. R. Reisz. 2011. Eocene lizard from Germany reveals amphisbaenian origins. Nature 473: 364–367.

[SBL05] Sullivan, R. M., A. C. Boere & S. G Lucas. 2005. Redescription of the ceratopsid dinosaur Torosaurus utahensis (Gilmore, 1946) and a revision of the genus. Journal of Paleontology 79 (3): 564–582.

[XS11] Xu, X., C. Sullivan, M. Pittman, J. N. Choiniere, D. Hone, P. Upchurch, Q. Tan, D. Xiao, L. Tan & F. Han. 2011. A monodactyl nonavian dinosaur and the complex evolution of the alvarezsauroid hand. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 108 (6): 2338–2342.

Last updated: 9 August 2017.

Macrostomata

African rock python Python sebae brooding eggs, from Tropicario.

Belongs within: Serpentes.
Contains: Tropidophiidae, Colubroidea.

The Macrostomata is the clade including living non-fossorial snakes. Members of the Macrostomata have a hinged supratemporal, increasing the flexibility of the skull (Longrich et al. 2012).

Synapomorphies (from Longrich et al. 2012): Orbital margin of prefrontal vertical; maxilla ascending process absent; quadrate ramus of pterygoid with groove; coronoid posteroventral process absent; pelvic elements fused; premaxilla displaced anteriorly; parietal sagittal crest reduced anteriorly; supratemporal elongate.

<==Macrostomata [Booidea, Henophidia]
    |  i. s.: Pachyophis MH11
    |         Calabaria [Calabariidae] VH02
    |           `--C. reinhardtii VH02
    |--+--Xenopeltis [Xenopeltidae] MH11
    |  |    `--X. unicolor VH02
    |  `--Loxocemus [Loxocemidae] VH02
    |       `--L. bicolor VH02
    `--+--+--Bolyeriidae AZ06
       |  |    |--Casarea dussumieri VH02
       |  |    |--Bolyeria multicarinata FS01
       |  |    `--Xenophidion [Xenophidiidae] LBG12
       |  |         `--X. acanthognathus LBG12
       |  `--+--Tropidophiidae AZ06
       |     `--Caenophidia VH02
       |          |--Colubroidea MH11
       |          `--Acrochordidae [Acrochordoidea] AZ06
       |               |--Chersydrus R88
       |               `--Acrochordus RB03
       |                    |--A. dehmi Hoffstetter 1964 RB03
       |                    |--A. granulatus RB03
       |                    `--A. javanicus GWN71
       `--+--Ungaliophiinae LBG12
          |    |--Exiliboa placata LBG12
          |    `--Ungaliophis LBG12
          |         |--U. continentalis VH02
          |         `--U. panamensis LBG12
          `--+--Erycinae LBG12
             |    |--+--Eryx VH02
             |    |  |    |--E. colubrinus LBG12
             |    |  |    `--E. miliaris VH02
             |    |  `--Gongylophis colubrinus VH02
             |    `--+--Charina bottae VH02
             |       `--Lichanura trivirgata LBG12
             `--+--Pythoninae [Pythonidae] LBG12
                |    |  i. s.: Morelia S05
                |    |           |--M. boeleni VH02
                |    |           `--M. variegata G54
                |    |         Aspidites LBG12
                |    |           |--A. melanocephalus HD04
                |    |           `--A. ramsayi ADD08
                |    |--Python Daudin 1803 VH02, RB05
                |    |    |--P. europaeus Szyndlar & Rage 2003 RB05
                |    |    |--P. molurus Linnaeus 1758 S05
                |    |    |--P. regius GWN71
                |    |    |--P. reticulatus [=Broghammerus reticulatus] N10
                |    |    |--P. sebae Gmelin 1789 S05
                |    |    `--P. spolotes B32
                |    `--+--Apodora papuana VH02
                |       `--Liasis VH02
                |            |--L. maximus Werner 1936 K08
                |            |--L. olivacea Gray 1842 S05
                |            |    |--L. o. olivacea HD04
                |            |    `--L. o. barroni HD04
                |            `--L. savuensis VH02
                `--Boinae [Boidae] LBG12
                     |  i. s.: 0--Corallus [incl. Xenoboa] K88
                     |         |    |--C. caninus DS86
                     |         |    `--C. enydris DS86
                     |         `--+--Epicrates K88
                     |            |    |--E. cenchria K88
                     |            |    |    |--E. c. cenchria DS86
                     |            |    |    `--E. c. gaigei DS86
                     |            |    `--+--E. angulifer K88
                     |            |       `--+--E. striatus K88
                     |            |          `--+--+--E. chrysogaster K88
                     |            |             |  `--E. exsul K88
                     |            |             |--+--E. inornatus K88
                     |            |             |  `--E. subflavus K88
                     |            |             `--+--E. gracilis K88
                     |            |                `--+--E. fordii K88
                     |            |                   `--E. monensis K88
                     |            `--Eunectes murinus Linnaeus 1758 K88, S05
                     |         Antaresia HD04
                     |           |--A. perthensis HD04
                     |           `--A. stimsoni (Smith 1981) ADD08
                     |         Bavarioboa hermi RB03
                     |         Enygrus R13
                     |           |--E. asper R13
                     |           |--E. bibroni R13
                     |           |    |--E. b. bibroni R13
                     |           |    `--E. b. australis [=Boa australis] R13
                     |           `--E. carinatus R13
                     |         Sanzinia K88
                     |--+--Acrantophis madagascariensis VH02
                     |  `--Candoia carinata VH02
                     `--Boa constrictor VH02

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[AZ06] Apesteguía, S. & H. Zaher. 2006. A Cretaceous terrestrial snake with robust hindlimbs and a sacrum. Nature 440: 1037-1040.

[ADD08] Aplin, K., S. Donnellan & J. Dell. 2008. The herpetofauna of Faure Island, Shark Bay, Western Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum Supplement 75: 39-53.

[B32] Bourne, G. 1932. Sarcosporidia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 19: 1-8.

[DS86] Dixon, J. R. & P. Soini. 1986. The Reptiles of the Upper Amazon Basin, Iquitos Region, Peru. Milwaukee Public Museum: Milwaukee.

[FS01] Flannery, T. & P. Schouten. 2001. A Gap in Nature: Discovering the World’s Extinct Animals. Text Publishing: Melbourne.

[G54] Glauert, L. 1954. Reptiles and frogs. In The Archipelago of the Recherche (J. H. Willis, ed.) pp. 29-35. Australian Geographical Society: Melbourne.

[GWN71] Gorman, G. C., A. C. Wilson & M. Nakanishi. 1971. A biochemical approach towards the study of reptilian phylogeny: evolution of serum albumin and lactic dehydrogenase. Systematic Zoology 20 (2): 167-185.

[HD04] How, R. A., & J. Dell. 2004. Reptile assemblage of the Abydos Plain, north-eastern Pilbara, Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 87 (3): 85-95.

[K88] Kluge, A. G. 1988. Parsimony in vicariance biogeography: a quantitative method and a Greater Antillean example. Systematic Zoology 37 (4): 315-328.

[K08] Korsós, Z. 2008. History of the Herpetological Collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum. Annales Historico-Naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici 100: 37-93.

[LBG12] Longrich, N. R., B.-A. S. Bhullar & J. A. Gauthier. 2012. A transitional snake from the Late Cretaceous period of North America. Nature 488: 205-208.

[MH11] Müller, J., C. A. Hipsley, J. J. Head, N. Kardjilov, A. Hilger, M. Wuttke & R. R. Reisz. 2011. Eocene lizard from Germany reveals amphisbaenian origins. Nature 473: 364-367.

[N10] Naish, D. 2010. Tetrapod Zoology: Book One. CFZ Press: Bideford (UK).

[RB05] Rage, J.-C., & S. Bailon. 2005. Amphibians and squamate reptiles from the late early Miocene (MN 4) of Béon 1 (Montréal-du-Gers, southwestern France). Geodiversitas 27 (3): 413-441.

[RB03] Rage, J.-C., S. Bajpai, J. G. M. Thewissen & B. N. Tiwari. 2003. Early Eocene snakes from Kutch, western India, with a review of the Palaeophiidae. Geodiversitas 25 (4): 695-716.

[R88] Rieppel, O. 1988. The classification of the Squamata. In The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, vol. 1. Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds (M. J. Benton, ed.) pp. 261-293. Clarendon Press: Oxford.

[R13] Roux, J. 1913. Les reptiles de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et des îles Loyalty. In Nova Caledonia: Forschungen in Neu-Caledonian und auf den Loyalty-Inseln. A. Zoologie vol. 1, Heft II (F. Sarasin & J. Roux, eds) pp. 79-160. C. W. Kreidels Verlag: Wiesbaden.

[S05] Scanlon, J. D. 2005. Cranial morphology of the Plio-Pleistocene giant madtsoiid snake Wonambi naracoortensis. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 50: 139-180.

[VH02] Vidal, N., & S. B. Hedges. 2002. Higher-level relationships of snakes inferred from four nuclear and mitochondrial genes. Comptes Rendus Biologies 325: 977-985.

[WH02] Worthy, T. H., & R. N. Holdaway. 2002. The Lost World of the Moa: Prehistoric life of New Zealand. Indiana University Press: Bloomington (Indiana).

Colubroidea

Taiwan slug snake Pareas formosensis, from Snakes of Taiwan.

Belongs within: Macrostomata.
Contains: Thamnophis, Viperidae, Elapidae, Lamprophiinae, Natricinae, Xenodontinae, Colubrinae.

The Colubroidea are a large clade including nearly 2500 living snake species, including all venomous snakes. Members of the Colubroidea possess supralabial secretory serous cells in the mouth (Vidal & Hedges 2002) and lightly-built, elongate vertebrae with narrow centra (Rage et al. 2003). Living colubroids have traditionally been divided between the family Colubridae, whose members lack differentiated fangs in the front of the mouth, and the front-fanged families Atractaspididae, Viperidae and Elapidae; however, phylogenetic analyses indicate that the 'Colubridae' are paraphyletic relative to the other families.

<==Colubroidea
    |  i. s.: Vectophis Rage & Ford 1980 RB03
    |           `--V. wardi Rage & Ford 1980 RB03
    |         Headonophis Holman 1993 RB03
    |           `--H. harrisoni Holman 1993 RB03
    |--Russellophiidae RB03
    |--Anomalophiidae RB03
    `--Colubridae RB03
         |  i. s.: Thamnophis VH02
         |         Dendrophidion dendrophis DS86
         |         Drymarchon corais DS86
         |         Drymobius rhombifer DS86
         |         Drymoluber dichrous DS86
         |         Leptophis DS86
         |           |--L. abaetulla DS86
         |           |    |--L. a. abaetulla DS86
         |           |    `--L. a. nigromarginatus DS86
         |           `--L. cupreus DS86
         |         Pseustes DS86
         |           |--P. poecilonotus DS86
         |           |    |--P. p. poecilonotus DS86
         |           |    `--P. p. polylepis DS86
         |           |--P. sexcarinatus DS86
         |           `--P. sulphureus DS86
         |         Spilotes pullatus DS86
         |         Xenopholis scalaris DS86
         |         Psomophis C07
         |         Coronella austriaca Laurenti 1768 BB03 [=Coluber austriacus K08]
         |         Texasophis Holman 1977 RB05
         |           |--T. bohemiacus RB05
         |           `--T. meini Rage & Holman 1984 RB05
         |         Dromicus H81
         |           |--D. cursor (Lacépède 1789) [=Leimadophis cursor] H81
         |           `--D. ornatus Garman 1887 [=Leimadophis ornatus] H81
         |         Phalotris JK08
         |           |--P. cuyanus (Cei 1984) JK08
         |           |--P. lemniscatus (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril 1854) JK08
         |           |--P. matogrossensis Lema, D’Agostini & Cappellari 2005 JK08
         |           |--P. mertensi (Hoge 1955) JK08
         |           |--P. nasutus (Gomes 1915) JK08
         |           |--P. sansebastiani Jansen & Köhler 2008 JK08
         |           `--P. tricolor (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril 1854) [incl. P. punctatus (Lema 1979)] JK08
         |         Elapomorphus JK08
         |           |--E. mertensi Hoge 1955 H55
         |           `--E. tricolor H55
         |         Dendrophis R13
         |           |--D. calligaster R13
         |           |--D. caudolineata M89
         |           `--D. picta M89
         |         Trimorphodon biscutatus N10
         |         Pituophis melanoleucus GWN71
         |         Apostolepis G11
         |         Lytorhynchus diadema [incl. L. kennedyi Schmidt 1939] A-O00
         |--Xenodermatinae VH02
         |    |--Xenodermus javanicus VH02
         |    `--+--Stoliczkaia borneensis VH02
         |       `--Achalinus VH02
         |            |--A. formosanus I92
         |            |    |--A. f. formosanus I92
         |            |    `--A. f. chigirai Ota & Toyama 1989 I92
         |            |--A. rufescens VH02
         |            `--A. werneri van Denburgh 1912 I92
         `--+--Pareatinae [Pareatini] VH02
            |    |--Aplopeltura boa VH02
            |    `--Pareas VH02
            |         |--P. carinatus VH02
            |         |--P. formosensis I92
            |         |--P. iwasakii (Maki 1937) I92
            |         |--P. komaii I92
            |         |--P. laevis [=Leptognathus laevis] C07
            |         `--P. nuchalis VH02
            `--+--Viperidae VH02
               `--+--+--Erpeton tentaculatum VH02
                  |  `--+--Enhydris VH02
                  |     |    |--*E. enhydris VH02
                  |     |    `--E. plumbea VH02
                  |     `--Homalopsidae M89
                  |          |--Homalopsis buccata VH02
                  |          `--Cerberus rhynchops M89, VH02
                  `--+--+--Elapidae VH02
                     |  `--Lamprophiinae VH02
                     `--+--+--Natricinae VH02
                        |  `--+--Pseudoxenodon karlschmidti VH02
                        |     `--Xenodontinae VH02
                        `--+--Grayia ornata VH02
                           `--+--Colubrinae VH02
                              `--Calamariinae VH02
                                   |--Oreocalamus hanitschi VH02
                                   `--Calamaria VH02
                                        |--C. babia S60
                                        |--C. favae de Filippi 1840 (n. d.) [=Atractus favae] S60
                                        |--C. pavimentata VH02
                                        |--C. pfefferi Stejneger 1901 I92
                                        `--C. stahlknechti M89

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[A-O00] Al-Oran, R. M. 2000. Notable herpetological records from central and southern Jordan. Zoology in the Middle East 21: 31-36.

[BB03] Blain, H.-A., & S. Bailon. 2003. Les amphibiens et les reptiles des couches du Pléistocène supérieur ancien du gisement d'Artenac (Charente, France). Quaternaire 14 (1): 85-95.

[C07] Cadle, J. E. 2007. The snake genus Sibynomorphus (Colubridae: Dipsadinae: Dipsadini) in Peru and Ecuador, with comments on the systematics of Dipsadini. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 158 (5): 183-284.

[DS86] Dixon, J. R. & P. Soini. 1986. The Reptiles of the Upper Amazon Basin, Iquitos Region, Peru. Milwaukee Public Museum: Milwaukee.

[GWN71] Gorman, G. C., A. C. Wilson & M. Nakanishi. 1971. A biochemical approach towards the study of reptilian phylogeny: evolution of serum albumin and lactic dehydrogenase. Systematic Zoology 20 (2): 167-185.

[G11] Guadanucci, J. P. L. 2011. Cladistic analysis and biogeography of the genus Oligoxystre Vellard 1924 (Araneae: Mygalomorphae: Theraphosidae). Journal of Arachnology 39 (2): 320-326.

[H55] Hoge, A. R. 1955. Eine neue Schlange der Gattung Elapomorphus aus Brasilien. Senckenbergiana Biologica 36 (5-6): 301-304.

[H81] Honegger, R. E. 1981. List of amphibians and reptiles either known or thought to have become extinct since 1600. Biological Conservation 19: 141-158.

[I92] Iwahashi, J. (ed.) 1992. Reddo Deeta Animaruzu: a pictorial of Japanese fauna facing extinction. JICC: Tokyo.

[JK08] Jansen, M., & G. Köhler. 2008. A new species of Phalotris from the eastern lowlands of Bolivia (Reptilia, Squamata, Colubridae). Senckenbergiana Biologica 88 (1): 103-110.

[K08] Korsós, Z. 2008. History of the Herpetological Collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum. Annales Historico-Naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici 100: 37-93.

[M89] Modigliani, E. 1889. Materiali per la fauna erpetologica dell'isola Nias. Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova, Serie 2a 7: 113-124.

[N10] Naish, D. 2010. Tetrapod Zoology: Book One. CFZ Press: Bideford (UK).

[RB05] Rage, J.-C., & S. Bailon. 2005. Amphibians and squamate reptiles from the late early Miocene (MN 4) of Béon 1 (Montréal-du-Gers, southwestern France). Geodiversitas 27 (3): 413-441.

[RB03] Rage, J.-C., S. Bajpai, J. G. M. Thewissen & B. N. Tiwari. 2003. Early Eocene snakes from Kutch, western India, with a review of the Palaeophiidae. Geodiversitas 25 (4): 695-716.

[R13] Roux, J. 1913. Les reptiles de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et des îles Loyalty. In Nova Caledonia: Forschungen in Neu-Caledonian und auf den Loyalty-Inseln. A. Zoologie vol. 1, Heft II (F. Sarasin & J. Roux, eds) pp. 79-160. C. W. Kreidels Verlag: Wiesbaden.

[S60] Savage, J. M. 1960. A revision of the Ecuadorian snakes of the colubrid genus Atractus. Miscellaneous Publications Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan 112: 1-86.

[VH02] Vidal, N., & S. B. Hedges. 2002. Higher-level relationships of caenophidian snakes inferred from four nuclear and mitochondrial genes. Comptes Rendus Biologies 325: 987-995.

Hydrophiinae

Annulated sea snake Hydrophis cyanocinctus, photographed by Hanne & Jens Eriksen.

Belongs within: Elapidae.

The Hydrophiinae is a group of sea snakes found in tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific. Members of this group are viviparous, and have a paddle-like tail with elongate neural spines (Naish 2010).

<==Hydrophiinae
    |--Hydrus platurus [incl. Pelamis bicolor] R13
    |--Distira major [incl. Hydrophis protervus] R13
    |--Aipysurus R13
    |    |--A. annulatus [incl. A. chelonicephalus] R13
    |    `--A. laevis [incl. A. duboisi, A. fuliginosus] R13
    |--Platurus R13
    |    |--P. colubrinus [incl. P. fasciatus] R13
    |    `--P. laticaudatus [incl. P. fischeri] R13
    `--Hydrophis N10
         |--H. belcheri N10
         |--H. cyanocinctus N10
         |--H. semperi N10
         |--H. sibauensis Rasmussen et al. 2001 N10
         `--H. spiralis N10

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[N10] Naish, D. 2010. Tetrapod Zoology: Book One. CFZ Press: Bideford (UK).

[R13] Roux, J. 1913. Les reptiles de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et des îles Loyalty. In Nova Caledonia: Forschungen in Neu-Caledonian und auf den Loyalty-Inseln. A. Zoologie vol. 1, Heft II (F. Sarasin & J. Roux, eds) pp. 79-160. C. W. Kreidels Verlag: Wiesbaden.

Strephocladina

Life restoration of Synomaloptila longipennis, from Rasnitsyn (2002).

Belongs within: Paraneoptera.

The Strephocladina are a group of insects known from the Middle Carboniferous to Late Permian. They may have been specialised for feeding on plant seeds and ovules.

Characters (from Rasnitsyn 2002): Body relatively large and heavy; head long; wings often polyneurous, rest position either roof-like or horizontal.

<==Strephocladina
    |--Synomaloptila [Synomaloptilidae] R02
    |    `--S. longipennis R02
    `--+--Hypermegethes [Hypermegethidae] R02
       |--Permarrhaphidae [Strephoneuridae] R02
       |    |--Strephoneura robusta R02
       |    |--Pseudoedischia berthaudi R02
       |    `--Permarrhaphus venosus R02
       `--Anthracoptilidae [Strephocladidae] R02
            |--Mycteroptila armipotens R02
            |--Strephocladus subtilis R02
            |--Anthracoptilus perrieri R02
            |--Ischnoneurona Handlirsch 1919 R02, BN05
            |    `--*I. delicatula (Brongniart 1893) [=Ischnoneura delicatula] BN05
            `--Mesoptilus R02
                 |--M. dolloi R02
                 |--M. fayolianus R02
                 `--M. sellardsi R02

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[BN05] Béthoux, O., & A. Nel. 2005. Some Palaeozoic ‘Protorthoptera’ are ‘ancestral’ orthopteroids: Major wing braces as clues to a new split among the ‘Protorthoptera’ (Insecta). Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 2 (4): 285-309.

[R02] Rasnitsyn, A. P. 2002. Cohors Cimiciformes Laicharting, 1781. In History of Insects (A. P. Rasnitsyn & D. L. J. Quicke, eds) pp. 104-115. Kluwer Academic Publishers: Dordrecht.

Plethodontidae

Worm salamander Oedipina carablanca, from the Costa Rican Amphibian Research Centre.

Belongs within: Caudata.
Contains: Plethodon, Hydromantes, Spelerpinae, Batrachoseps, Bolitoglossa.

The Plethodontidae are a diverse lineage of salamanders found mostly in the Americas, with a smaller number of species in Europe and east Asia. Their most distinctive feature is the absence of lungs, with respiration instead occurring through the skin. Members of the subfamily Bolitoglossinae and most species of the Plethodontinae are direct developers, laying eggs on land that hatch into miniature adults without going through a larval phase. The larval phase is retained in Spelerpinae, Hemidactylium and most species of Desmognathus, and some species of Spelerpinae are neotenic.

Synapomorphies (from Frost et al. 2006): Stylus absent from opercular apparatus; periotic connective tissue present; periotic cistern small; basilaris complex absent; recessus amphibiorum with vertical orientation; palatal dentition replacement both laterally and posteriorly; lungs absent.

REFERENCE

Frost, D. R., T. Grant, J. Faivovich, R. H. Bain, A. Haas, C. F. B. Haddad, R. O. de Sá, A. Channing, M. Wilkinson, S. C. Donnellan, C. J. Raxworthy, J. A. Campbell, B. L. Blotto, P. Moler, R. C. Drewes, R. A. Nussbaum, J. D. Lynch, D. M. Green & W. C. Wheeler. 2006. The amphibian tree of life. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 297: 1-370.

Physothrips

Pseudanaphothrips aureolus (previously Physothrips aureolus), from OzThrips.

Belongs within: Thysanoptera.

Physothrips has been recognised in the past as a genus of thrips breeding on tree leaves; it is not currently recognised as valid.

<==Physothrips Karny 1914 GM79
    |--P. aureolus Girault 1928 G28b
    |--P. citricorpus Girault 1927 G27c
    |--P. citrilacteus Girault 1928 G28a
    |--P. emersoni Girault 1927 G27a
    |--P. io (Girault 1927) G30b, GM79 [=Thrips io G30b]
    |--P. keatsi Girault 1928 G28b
    |--P. kellyanus Bagnall 1921 GM79
    |--P. lacteicolor Girault 1928 G28a
    |--P. livii Girault 1930 G30a
    |--P. marii Girault 1928 G28c
    |--P. mjobergi Karny 1920 GM79
    |    |--P. m. mjobergi G30b
    |    `--P. m. darci Girault 1930 G30b
    |--P. montanus Girault 1927 G27b
    |--P. myrsiniicola Bagnall 1926 GM79
    |--P. nativus Girault 1929 G29
    |--P. quadrisetae Girault 1927 G27c
    |--P. seticollis Bagnall 1915 GM79
    |--P. setipennis Bagnall 1916 GM79
    |--P. silvae Girault 1928 G28b
    |--P. speciosus (Hood 1919) GM79 [incl. P. flavicinctus Karny 1924 G30b, GM79]
    |--P. spiranthidis Bagnall 1926 GM79 [incl. P. simplex Morrison 1930 G30b, GM79]
    |    |--P. s. spiranthidis G33
    |    `--P. s. plurisetae Girault 1933 G33
    `--P. uniformis Bagnall 1926 GM79

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[G27a] Girault, A. A. 1927a. Some new wild animals. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 208-210).

[G27b] Girault, A. A. 1927b. New Australian animals so far overlooked by outsiders. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 211-212).

[G27c] Girault, A. A. 1927c. A discourse on wild animals. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 216-217).

[G28a] Girault, A. A. 1928a. A prodigeous discourse on wild animals. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 218-220).

[G28b] Girault, A. A. 1928b. Some Insecta and a new All Highness. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 225-228).

[G28c] Girault, A. A. 1928c. Notice of a curious professor and of native wasps and wood lice. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 229-232).

[G29] Girault, A. A. 1929. North American Hymenoptera Mymaridae. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 233-261).

[G30a] Girault, A. A. 1930a. New pests from Australia. VII. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 270-272).

[G30b] Girault, A. A. 1930b. New pests from Australia. VIII. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 273-277).

[G33] Girault, A. A. 1933. Some beauties inhabitant not of the boudoirs of commerce but of Nature’s bosom—new insects. Privately published (reprinted Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 304-305).

[GM79] Gordh, G., A. S. Menke, E. C. Dahms & J. C. Hall. 1979. The privately printed papers of A. A. Girault. Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute 28: 1-400.