Cyanobacteria

Synechococcus elongatus, from Bacmap.

Belongs within: Life.
Contains: Aphralysiaceae, Entophysalidaceae, Myxococcoides, Phormidium, Hormogoneae, Pleurocapsales, Lyngbya, Oscillatoria.

The Cyanobacteria, blue-green algae, is a distinctive group of photosynthetic bacteria possessing a dual photosystem allowing the use of H₂O as a photoreductant leading to the release of oxygen. Chlorophyll a is primarily used as the reaction centre pigment, though chlorophyll b is also present in some species (Castenholz 2001). In the majority of Cyanobacteria, comprising the clade known as the Phycobacteria, the photosynthetic pigments are embedded in membrane compartments, called thylakoids; these are absent in the basal Gloeobacterales (Cavalier-Smith 2002). Through endosymbiosis, at least one lineage of the Phycobacteria gave rise to the chloroplasts.

Molecular analyses have indicated that the majority of Phycobacteria can be placed in lineages that have been labelled the AC and E clades, with the latter further divided between E1 and E2 subclades (the latter corresponding to what is here labelled the Hormogoneae). Members of the AC clade are mostly unicellular picoplankton; those multicellular taxa in this clade are all simple with undifferentiated cells (Schirrmeister et al. 2013).

<==Cyanobacteria (see below for synonymy)
    |--Gloeobacterales [Gloeobacteria] CB12
    |    |--Gloeobacter Rippka, Waterbury & Cohen-Bazire 1974 AG03, C01
    |    |    |--*G. violaceus Rippka, Waterbury & Cohen-Bazire 1974 C01
    |    |    `--‘Gloeothece’ coerulea Geitler 1927 C01
    |    `--Candidatus Gloeomargarita Couradeau, Benzerara et al. 2012 CB12
    |         `--G. lithophora Couradeau, Benzerara et al. 2012 CB12
    `--Phycobacteria (see below for synonymy) C-S02
         |  i. s.: Gunflintia Barghoorn 1965 KS92
         |           |--*G. minuta Barghoorn in Barghoorn & Tyler 1965 KS92
         |           |--G. grandis Barghoorn in Barghoorn & Tyler 1965 KS92
         |           `--G. oehlerae Muir 1976 KS92
         |         Eomycetopsis Schopf 1968 KS92
         |           |--*E. robusta Schopf 1968 KS92
         |           |--E. filiformis Schopf 1968 KS92
         |           |--E. schopfii T84
         |           `--E. siberiensis Lo 1980 KS92
         |         Biocatenoides Schopf 1968 KS92
         |           |--*B. sphaerulae Schopf 1968 KS92
         |           |--B. incrustata KS92
         |           |--B. pertenues KS92
         |           `--B. rhabdos KS92
         |         Siphonophycus Schopf 1968 KS92, X04
         |           |--*S. kestron Schopf 1968 KS92
         |           |--S. capitaneum X04
         |           |--S. inornata KS92
         |           |--S. robusta X04
         |           |--S. transvalensis KS92
         |           `--S. typicum X04
         |         Oscillatoriopsis Schopf 1968 KS92
         |           |--*O. obtusa Schopf 1968 KS92
         |           |--O. amadeus X04
         |           |--O. awramikii KS92
         |           |--O. breviconvexa KS92
         |           |--O. curta KS92
         |           |--O. longa X04
         |           |--O. media KS92
         |           |--O. robusta KS92
         |           `--O. schopfii KS92
         |         Borzia Cohn ex Gomont 1892 C01
         |           `--B. trilocularis C01
         |         Hormoscilla Anagnostidis & Komárek 1988 C01
         |         Schizothrix Kützing 1843 C01
         |         Sirocoleus Kützing 1849 C01
         |         Polychlamydum West & West 1879 C01
         |         Dasygloea Thwaites 1848 C01
         |         Gomontiella Teodoresco 1901 C01
         |         Phormidium L02
         |--+--‘Oscillatoria’ limnetica L02
         |  |--Limnothrix Meffert 1988 CB12, C01
         |  |    |--‘Oscillatoria’ amphigranulata C01
         |  |    |--‘Oscillatoria’ planktonica C01
         |  |    `--L. redekei [=Oscillatoria redekei] C01
         |  |--Arthronema gygaxiana SV13
         |  `--Pseudanabaena Lauterborn 1916 C01
         |       |--P. catenata C01
         |       |--P. galeata C01
         |       `--P. tenuis C01
         `--+--Group AC SV13
            |    |--+--Acaryochloris marina SV13, CB12
            |    |  `--+--‘Synechococcus’ lividus SV13
            |    |     `--Thermosynechococcus elongatus SV13
            |    `--+--‘Oscillatoria’ neglecta L02
            |       `--+--+--Halomicronema excentricum CB12
            |          |  `--+--Plectonema Thuret 1875 L02, C01
            |          |     |    |--*P. tomasianum Bornet 1889 C01
            |          |     |    |--P. boryanum TK06
            |          |     |    `--P. norvegicum C01
            |          |     `--Leptolyngbya Anagnostidis & Komárek 1988 SV13, C01
            |          |          |--L. crosbyana (Tilden) Anagnostidis & Komárek 1988 (see below for synonymy) HL09
            |          |          |--L. ectocarpi [=Phormidium ectocarpi] C01
            |          |          |--L. minuta C01
            |          |          `--‘Plectonema’ notatum C01
            |          `--+--Prochlorothrix Burger-Wiersma, Stal & Mur 1989 CB12, C01 [Prochlorotrichaceae]
            |             |    `--*P. hollandica Burger-Wiersma et al. 1989 C01
            |             `--+--+--+--‘Microcystis’ elabens L02
            |                |  |  |  `--‘Microcystis’ holsatica L02
            |                |  |  `--Cyanobium Rippka & Cohen-Bazire 1983 SV13, C01
            |                |  |       |--*C. gracile Rippka & Cohen-Bazire 1983 C01
            |                |  |       |--C. marinum [=Anacystis marina] C01
            |                |  |       `--C. oceanicum [=Synechococcus oceanicus] C01
            |                |  `--Prochlorococcus Chisholm, Frankel et al. 1992 SV13, C01
            |                |       `--*P. marinus Chisholm, Frankel et al. 1992 C01
            |                |            |--P. m. ssp. marinus JC08
            |                |            `--P. m. ssp. pastoris Rippka et al. 2001 (nom. illeg.) JC08
            |                `--Synechococcus Nägeli 1849 SV13, C01
            |                     |--S. elongatus C01
            |                     |    |--S. e. f. elongatus MM05
            |                     |    `--S. e. f. thermalis MM05
            |                     |--S. eximius PHK96
            |                     |--S. leopoliensis C01
            |                     `--Candidatus S. spongiarum FU08
            `--Group E SV13
                 |--Hormogoneae SV13
                 `--Clade E2 SV13
                      |--+--+--‘Oscillatoria’ corallinae L02
                      |  |  |--Microcoleus Desmazieres 1823 SV13, C01
                      |  |  |    `--M. chtoenoplastes SV13
                      |  |  `--Symploca Kützing 1843 SV13, C01
                      |  |       |--S. atlantica Gomont 1892 C01
                      |  |       |--S. funicularis Setchell & Gardner 1918 C01
                      |  |       `--S. hydnoides (Harvey) Kützing 1849 [=Calothrix hydnoides Harvey 1833] HL09
                      |  `--+--+--+--Halothece L02
                      |     |  |  `--+--Euhalothece L02
                      |     |  |     `--Dactylococcopsis Hansgirg 1888 SV13, C01 (see below for synonymy)
                      |     |  |          |--*D. salina [=Myxobactron salinum] C01
                      |     |  |          |--D. echini BK77
                      |     |  |          |--‘*Rhabdogloea’ ellipsoidea Schröder 1917 C01
                      |     |  |          |--D. linearis Geitler 1935 C01
                      |     |  |          |--D. planctonica Teiling 1942 C01
                      |     |  |          `--D. smithii Chaudat & Chaudat 1925 C01
                      |     |  `--+--Halospirulina tapeticola SV13
                      |     |     `--Geitlerinema (Anagnostidis & Komárek 1988) Anagnostidis 1989 SV13, C01
                      |     |          `--G. terebriformis [=Oscillatoria terebriformis Agardh 1827] C01
                      |     `--+--+--Pleurocapsales SV13
                      |        |  `--Prochloron Lewin 1977^VP SV13, C01 [Prochloraceae]
                      |        |       `--P. didemni AG03
                      |        `--+--+--+--Aphanothece Nägeli 1849 [incl. Coccochloris] C01
                      |           |  |  |    `--A. halophytica C01
                      |           |  |  `--Cyanothece Komárek 1976 SV13, C01
                      |           |  |       |--*C. aeruginosa (Nägeli) Komárek 1976 (see below for synonymy) C01
                      |           |  |       `--C. cedrorum C01
                      |           |  `--+--Chroococcus Nägeli 1849 SV13, C01
                      |           |     |    `--*C. turgidus C01
                      |           |     `--Microcystis Kutzing ex Lemmermann 1907 (nom. cons.) SV13, C01
                      |           |          |--*M. aeruginosa Kützing 1846 C01, GK05 (see below for synonymy)
                      |           |          |--M. convoluta SG05
                      |           |          |--M. flos-aquae (Wittrock) Kirchner 1900 M70
                      |           |          |--M. ichthyoblabe L02
                      |           |          |--M. novacekii L02
                      |           |          |--M. viridis L02
                      |           |          `--M. wesenbergii L02
                      |           `--+--Gloeothece Nägeli 1849 SV13, C01
                      |              |    |--*G. linearis Nägeli 1849 C01
                      |              |    `--G. membranacea Bornet 1892 C01
                      |              `--+--Spirulina Turpin ex Gomont 1892 nec Bory 1826 nec Ehrenberg 1843 (ICZN) CB12, C01
                      |                 |    |--S. labyrinthiformis AG03
                      |                 |    |--S. major C01
                      |                 |    |--S. subsalsa AG03
                      |                 |    `--S. subtilissima RA05
                      |                 `--Radiocystis SV13
                      `--+--+--Planktothrix Anagnostidis & Komárek 1988 C01
                         |  |    |--P. agardhii C01 [=Oscillatoria agardhii Gomont 1892 L02, C01]
                         |  |    |--P. mougeotii C01
                         |  |    |--P. prolifica C01
                         |  |    `--P. rubescens [=Oscillatoria rubescens de Candolle ex Gomont 1825] C01
                         |  `--+--Lyngbya SV13
                         |     `--Arthrospira Stizenberger 1852 L02, C01
                         |          |--A. fusiformis C01
                         |          |--A. maxima [=Spirulina maxima] C01
                         |          `--A. platensis AG03 [=Spirulina platensis C01]
                         `--+--Oscillatoria C01
                            |--Hydrocoleum Kützing 1843 C01
                            |    |--H. cantharidosmum [=Blennothrix cantharidosmum] AG03
                            |    `--H. coccineum AG03
                            |--Tychonema Anagnostidis & Komárek 1988 C01
                            |    |--T. bornetii [=Oscillatoria bornetii Zukal ex Geitler 1932] C01
                            |    `--T. bourrelyi [=Oscillatoria bornetii f. tenuis Skuja 1930] C01
                            `--Trichodesmium Ehrenberg ex Gomont 1892 CB12, C01
                                 |--+--T. hildebrandtii L02
                                 |  `--T. thiebautii L02
                                 `--+--T. erythraeum L02
                                    `--+--T. contortum L02
                                       `--T. tenue L02

Cyanobacteria incertae sedis:
  Grypania Walter, Oehler & Oehler 1976 C-S02, H85 [incl. Spiroscolex Torell 1870 H62]
    `--*G. spiralis (Walcott) Walter, Oehler & Oehler 1976 H85 (see below for synonymy)
  Bangiomorpha C-S02
  Umezakia natans MN03
  Epiphyton HS02
  Anacystis nidulans C01
  Satpulispora T84
    |--S. microreticulata T84
    |--S. minuta T84
    `--S. psilata T84
  Aphralysiaceae VH01
  Sphaerophycus Schopf 1968 KS92
    |--*S. parvum Schopf 1968 KS92
    |--S. medium KS92
    |--S. reticulatum KS92
    |--S. tetragonalis Muir 1976 KS92
    `--S. wilsonii KS92
  Entophysalidaceae C01
  ‘Diplocystis’ Trevisan 1848 (nom. rej.) non Berkeley & Curtis 1869 FT93
  Crocosphaera watsonii R-EB05
  Coelosphaerium Nageli 1849 M70
    `--C. kuetzingianum Nageli 1849 M70
  Girvanellaceae [Porostromata] MSV01
    |--Halysis Høeg 1932 [incl. Flabellia Shuysky 1973] MSV01
    |    `--*H. moniliformis Høeg 1932 (see below for synonymy) MSV01
    `--Girvanella Nicholson & Etheridge 1878 [=Argirvanellum Rhumbler 1913] LT64b
         `--*G. problematica Nicholson & Etheridge 1878 LT64b
  Paraphralysia Vachard in Vachard & Beckary 1991 MSV00
  Polymorphodium Derville 1931 MSV00
  Chabakoviaceae MSV00
    |--Tscherdyncevella Antropov 1950 MSV00
    |    `--*T. acervulinoides Antropov 1950 LT64a
    `--Chabakovia Vologdin 1939 LT64b
         `--*C. ramosa Vologdin 1939 LT64b
  Cyanobacterium Rippka & Cohen-Bazire 1983 C01
    `--*C. stanieri Rippka & Cohen-Bazire 1983 C01
  Gloeocapsa Kützing 1843 C01
    |--G. atrata SG05
    `--G. rupestris SG05
  Myxococcoides KS92
  Melasmatosphaera Hofmann 1976 KS92
    |--*M. media Hofmann 1976 KS92
    |--M. magna KS92
    `--M. parva Hofmann 1976 KS92
  Huroniospora Baghoorn 1965 KS92
    |--*H. microreticulata Barghoorn in Barghoorn & Tyler 1965 KS92
    |--H. barghoorn KS92
    |--H. macroreticulata KS92
    |--H. microreticulata KS92
    |--H. ornata KS92
    `--H. psilata Barghoorn in Barghoorn & Tyler 1965 KS92
  Tetraphycus Oehler 1978 KS92
    |--*T. gregalis Oehler 1978 KS92
    |--T. acinulus KS92
    |--T. congregatus McMenamin, Kumar & Awramik 1983 KS92
    |--T. conjunctum Lo 1980 KS92
    |--T. diminutivus KS92
    `--T. major Oehler 1978 KS92
  Eosynechococcus Hofmann 1976 KS92
    |--*E. mooreii Hofmann 1976 KS92
    |--E. amadeus Knoll & Golubic 1979 KS92
    |--E. depressus KS92
    |--E. grandis KS92
    |--E. isolatus McMenamin, Kumar & Awramik 1983 KS92
    |--E. medius KS92
    `--E. minutus T84
  Abruptophycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*A. compositus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Amplectostroma Vologdin 1966 G79
    `--*A. ramificata Vologdin 1966 G79
  Angarophycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*A. depictus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Antiquophytolithus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*A. filamentaris Vologdin 1962 G79
  Azyrtalia Vologdin 1969 G79
    `--*A. zonulata Vologdin 1969 G79
  Borlogella Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*B. multifaria Vologdin 1962 G79
  Bulbistroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*B. curtothallum Vologdin 1962 G79
  Bursiphycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*B. bullatus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Cirriphycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*C. ordinatus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Columnaria Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*C. turuchanica Vologdin 1962 G79
  Crispophycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*C. sibiricus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Crustophycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*C. angaricus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Cyanostroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*C. turuchanicum Vologdin 1962 G79
  Cystostroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*C. varians Vologdin 1962 G79
  Echaninia Vologdin 1969 G79
    `--*E. mucosa Vologdin 1969 G79
  Fibrostroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*F. fibrillatum Vologdin 1962 G79
  Fillostroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*F. moticum Vologdin 1962 G79
  Grabauella Vologdin 1964 G79
    `--*G. dependitis Vologdin 1964 G79
  Granifer Vologdin 1955 non Fritsch 1908 (ICZN) G79
    `--*G. conicus Vologdin 1955 G79
  Jatuliana Korde in Vologdin & Korde 1965 G79
    `--*J. furcata Korde in Vologdin & Korde 1965 G79
  Lamellophycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*L. aculeatus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Lamellostroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*L. vesiculare Vologdin 1962 G79
  Leiostroma Vologdin 1966 G79
    `--*L. eleganta Vologdin 1966 G79
  Leptotrichomaria Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*L. intermissa Vologdin 1962 G79
  Lermontovaephycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*L. lamellosus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Lopatinella Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*L. bipartita Vologdin 1962 G79
  Mucostroma Vologdin 1966 G79
    `--*M. carelica Vologdin 1966 G79
  Murandavia Vologdin 1965 [incl. Kareliana Korde in Vologdin & Korde 1965] G79
    `--*M. amurica Vologdin 1965 G79
  Nerusiandella Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*N. faveolata Vologdin 1962 G79
  Papulophycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*P. pennatus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Perennaria Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*P. ambigua Vologdin 1962 G79
  Pilostroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*P. grumosum Vologdin 1962 G79
  Plexostroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*P. pleurotropum Vologdin 1962 G79
  Praechroococcus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*P. catervatus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Protoepiphyton Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*P. curtofiligerum Vologdin 1962 G79
  Ramulostroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*R. ramulosum Vologdin 1962 G79
  Sarmaella Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*S. vesiculosa Vologdin 1962 G79
  Scandophycus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*S. crispobilis Vologdin 1962 G79
  Sphaerothallus Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*S. spissus Vologdin 1962 G79
  Telastroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*T. tenuirimulatum Vologdin 1962 G79
  Thysanoplanta Vologdin & Titorenko 1966 G79
    `--*T. filamentosa Vologdin & Titorenko 1966 G79
  Trichostroma Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*T. capilliforme Vologdin 1962 G79
  ‘Vesicularia’ Vologdin 1962 nec Thompson 1830 (ICZN) nec (Müll.Hal.) Müll.Hal. 1896 G79
    `--*V. nidifica Vologdin 1962 G79
  Vittophyton Vologdin 1962 G79
    `--*V. parvum Vologdin 1962 G79

Cyanobacteria [Chroococcaceae, Chroococcales, Chroocophyceae, Coccogoneae, Cyanophyceae, Cyanophyta, Myxophyceae, Myxophyta]

*Cyanothece aeruginosa (Nägeli) Komárek 1976 [=Synechococcus aeruginosa Nägeli 1849] C01

Dactylococcopsis Hansgirg 1888 L02, C01 [incl. Myxobactron Schmidle 1904 C01, Rhabdogloea Schröder 1917 C01]

*Grypania spiralis (Walcott) Walter, Oehler & Oehler 1976 H85 [=Helminthoidichnites spiralis Walcott 1899 H85; incl. Montfortia filiformis Lebesconte 1886 H85, Arenicolites spiralis Billings 1872 H85, A. (Spiroscolex) spirales Dawson 1897 H85, *Spiroscolex spiralis H62]

*Halysis moniliformis Høeg 1932 [incl. *Flabellia basifixa Shuysky 1973, H. sphaericus Saltovskaya 1984, F. ufensis Shuysky 1973] MSV01

Leptolyngbya crosbyana (Tilden) Anagnostidis & Komárek 1988 [=Phormidium crosbyanum Tilden 1909] HL09

*Microcystis aeruginosa Kützing 1846 C01, GK05 [=Clatthrocystis aeruginosa (Kützing) Henfrey 1856 GK05]

Phycobacteria [Chroobacteria, Oscillatoriaceae, Oscillatoriales, Oxychlorobacteria, Phormidiaceae, Prochlorales, Prochlorophyta] C-S02

*Type species of generic name indicated

REFERENCES

[AG03] Abed, R. M. M., S. Golubic, F. Garcia-Pichel, G. F. Camoin & S. Sprachta. 2003. Characterization of microbialite-forming cyanobacteria in a tropical lagoon: Tikehau Atoll, Tuamotu, French Polynesia. Journal of Phycology 39: 862–873.

[BK77] Barel, C. D. N., & P. G. N. Kramers. 1977. A survey of the echinoderm associates of the north-east Atlantic area. Zoologische Verhandelingen 156: 1–159.

[C01] Castenholz, R. W. 2001. Phylum BX. Cyanobacteria: oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. In: Boone, D. R., R. W. Castenholz & G. M. Garrity (eds) Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology 2nd ed. vol. 1. The Archaea and the Deeply Branching and Phototrophic Bacteria pp. 473–599. Springer.

[C-S02] Cavalier-Smith, T. 2002. The neomuran origin of archaebacteria, the negibacterial root of the universal tree and bacterial megaclassification. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 52: 7–76.

[CB12] Couradeau, E., K. Benzerara, E. Gérard, D. Moreira, S. Bernard, G. E. Brown, Jr & P. López-García. 2012. An early-branching microbialite cyanobacterium forms intracellular carbonates. Science 336: 459–462.

[FT93] Fensome, R. A., F. J. R. Taylor, G. Norris, W. A. S. Sarjeant, D. I. Wharton & G. L. Williams. 1993. A classification of living and fossil dinoflagellates. Micropaleontology Special Publication 7: i–viii, 1–351.

[FU08] Fromont, J., K. L. Usher, D. C. Sutton, S. Toze & J. Kuo. 2008. Species of the sponge genus Chondrilla (Demospongiae: Chondrosida: Chondrillidae) in Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum 24 (4): 469–486.

[G79] Glaessner, M. F. 1979. Precambrian. In: Robison, R. A., & C. Teichert (eds) Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology pt A. Introduction. Fossilisation (Taphonomy), Biogeography and Biostratigraphy pp. A79–A118. The Geological Society of America, Inc.: Boulder (Colorado), and The University of Kansas: Lawrence (Kansas).

[GK05] Gupta, P., & S. Kumar. 2005. Microcystis aeruginosa Kützing bloom in ponds of Maldah district, West Bengal. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India 47 (1–4): 115–120.

[H62] Häntzschel, W. 1962. Trace fossils and problematica. In: Moore, R. C. (ed.) Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology pt W. Miscellanea: Conodonts, Conoidal Shells of Uncertain Affinities, Worms, Trace Fossils and Problematica pp. W177–W245. Geological Society of America, and University of Kansas Press.

[HS02] Höfling, R., & R. W. Scott. 2002. Early and Mid-Cretaceous buildups. SEPM Special Publication 72: 521–548.

[H85] Hofmann, H. J. 1985. The mid-Proterozoic Little Dal macrobiota, Mackenzzie Mountains, north-west Canada. Palaeontology 28 (2): 332–354.

[HL09] Huisman, J. M., F. Leliaert, H. Veerbruggen & R. A. Townsend. 2009. Marine benthic plants of Western Australia's shelf-edge atolls. Records of the Western Australian Museum Supplement 77: 50–87.

[JC08] Judicial Commission of the International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes. 2008. Status of strains that contravene Rules 27 (3) and 30 of the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria. Opinion 81. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 58: 1755–1763.

[KS92] Kumar, S., & P. Srivastava. 1992. Middle to late Proterozoic microbiota from the Deoban Limestone, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Precambrian Research 56: 291–318.

[L02] Litvaitis, M. K. 2002. A molecular test of cyanobacterial phylogeny: inferences from constraint analyses. Hydrobiologia 468: 135–145.

[LT64a] Loeblich, A. R., Jr & H. Tappan. 1964a. Sarcodina: chiefly “thecamoebians” and Foraminiferida. In Moore, R. C. (ed.) Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology pt C. Protista 2 vol. 1. The Geological Society of America and The University of Kansas Press.

[LT64b] Loeblich, A. R., Jr & H. Tappan. 1964b. Sarcodina: chiefly “thecamoebians” and Foraminiferida. In Moore, R. C. (ed.) Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology pt C. Protista 2 vol. 2. The Geological Society of America and The University of Kansas Press.

[M70] Meel, L. van. 1970. Etudes limnologiques en Belgique. VI.—Les méandres de la Durme à Hamme (Province de Flandre Orientale). Bulletin de l’Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique 46 (13): 1–56.

[MM05] Melkonian, M., & D. Mollenhauer. 2005. Robert Lauterborn (1869–1952) and his Paulinella chromatophora. Protist 156: 253–262.

[MN03] Moffitt, M. C., & B. A. Neilan. 2003. Evolutionary affiliations within the superfamily of ketosynthases reflect complex pathway associations. Journal of Molecular Evolution 56: 446–457.

[MSV00] Munnecke, A., T. Servais & D. Vachard. 2000. A new family of calcareous microfossils from the Silurian of Gotland, Sweden. Palaeontology 43 (6): 1153–1172.

[MSV01] Munnecke, A., T. Servais & D. Vachard. 2001. Halysis Høeg, 1932—a problematic Cyanophyceae: new evidence from the Silurian of Gotland (Sweden). Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie—Monatshefte 2001 (1): 21–42.

[PHK96] Prescott, L. M., J. P. Harley & D. A. Klein. 1996. Microbiology 3^rd ed. Wm. C. Brown Publishers: Dubuque (Iowa).

[RA05] Rath, J., & S. P. Adhikary. 2005. A check list of algae from Chilika Lake, Orissa. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India 47 (1–4): 101–114.

[R-EB05] Rodríguez-Ezpeleta, N., H. Brinkmann, S. C. Burey, B. Roure, G. Burger, W. Löffelhardt, H. J. Bohnert, H. Philippe & B. F. Lang. 2005. Monophyly of primary photosynthetic eukaryotes: green plants, red algae, and glaucophytes. Current Biology 15: 1325–1330.

[SG05] Sau, A., & R. K. Gupta. 2005. Algal flora of Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, West Bengal. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India 47 (1–4): 63–86.

[SV13] Schirrmeister, B. E., J. M. de Vos, A. Antonelli & H. C. Bagheri. 2013. Evolution of multicellularity coincided with increased diversification of cyanobacteria and the Great Oxidation Event. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 110 (5): 1791–1796.

[T84] Tewari, V. C. 1984. Stromatolites and Precambrian-Lower Cambrian biostratigraphy of the Lesser Himalaya. Proc. Vth India Geophytol. Conf., Lucknow (1983), Spec. Publ. 1984: 71–97.

[TK06] Tomitani, A., A. H. Knoll, C. M. Cavanaugh & T. Ohno. 2006. The evolutionary diversification of cyanobacteria: molecular-phylogenetic and paleontological perspectives. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 103: 5442–5447.

[VH01] Vachard, D., M. Hauser, R. Martini, L. Zaninetti, A. Matter & T. Peters. 2001. New algae and problematica of algal affinity from the Permian of the Aseelah Unit of the Batain Plain (East Oman). Geobios 34 (4): 375–404.

[X04] Xiao, S. 2004. New multicellular algal fossils and acritarchs in Doushantuo chert nodules (Neoproterozoic; Yangtze Gorges, south China). Journal of Paleontology 78 (2): 393–401.